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Sivaguru M, Mori S, Fouke KW, Ajijola OA, Shivkumar K, Samuel AZ, Bhargava R, Fouke BW. Osteopontin stabilization and collagen containment slows amorphous calcium phosphate transformation during human aortic valve leaflet calcification. Sci Rep 2024; 14:12222. [PMID: 38806601 PMCID: PMC11133482 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-62962-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Calcification of aortic valve leaflets is a growing mortality threat for the 18 million human lives claimed globally each year by heart disease. Extensive research has focused on the cellular and molecular pathophysiology associated with calcification, yet the detailed composition, structure, distribution and etiological history of mineral deposition remains unknown. Here transdisciplinary geology, biology and medicine (GeoBioMed) approaches prove that leaflet calcification is driven by amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP), ACP at the threshold of transformation toward hydroxyapatite (HAP) and cholesterol biomineralization. A paragenetic sequence of events is observed that includes: (1) original formation of unaltered leaflet tissues: (2) individual and coalescing 100's nm- to 1 μm-scale ACP spherules and cholesterol crystals biomineralizing collagen fibers and smooth muscle cell myofilaments; (3) osteopontin coatings that stabilize ACP and collagen containment of nodules preventing exposure to the solution chemistry and water content of pumping blood, which combine to slow transformation to HAP; (4) mm-scale nodule growth via ACP spherule coalescence, diagenetic incorporation of altered collagen and aggregation with other ACP nodules; and (5) leaflet diastole and systole flexure causing nodules to twist, fold their encasing collagen fibers and increase stiffness. These in vivo mechanisms combine to slow leaflet calcification and establish previously unexplored hypotheses for testing novel drug therapies and clinical interventions as viable alternatives to current reliance on surgical/percutaneous valve implants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mayandi Sivaguru
- Cytometry and Microscopy to Omics Facility, Roy J. Carver Biotechnology Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
- Earth Science & Environmental Change, School of Earth, Society and the Environment, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
| | - Shumpei Mori
- Cardiac Arrhythmia Center and Neurocardiology Research Program of Excellence, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kyle W Fouke
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA
| | - Olujimi A Ajijola
- Cardiac Arrhythmia Center and Neurocardiology Research Program of Excellence, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Kalyanam Shivkumar
- Cardiac Arrhythmia Center and Neurocardiology Research Program of Excellence, David Geffen School of Medicine, UCLA Health, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Ashok Z Samuel
- Department of Bioengineering, Grainger College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Rohit Bhargava
- Department of Bioengineering, Grainger College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Grainger College of Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
- Cancer Center at Illinois, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Bruce W Fouke
- Earth Science & Environmental Change, School of Earth, Society and the Environment, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
- Biomedical and Translational Sciences, Carle Illinois College of Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
- Department of Evolution, Ecology and Behavior, School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
- Roy J. Carver Biotechnology Center, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA.
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Goettsch C, Strzelecka-Kiliszek A, Bessueille L, Quillard T, Mechtouff L, Pikula S, Canet-Soulas E, Luis MJ, Fonta C, Magne D. TNAP as a therapeutic target for cardiovascular calcification: a discussion of its pleiotropic functions in the body. Cardiovasc Res 2022; 118:84-96. [PMID: 33070177 PMCID: PMC8752354 DOI: 10.1093/cvr/cvaa299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Cardiovascular calcification (CVC) is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. It develops in several diseases and locations, such as in the tunica intima in atherosclerosis plaques, in the tunica media in type 2 diabetes and chronic kidney disease, and in aortic valves. In spite of the wide occurrence of CVC and its detrimental effects on cardiovascular diseases (CVD), no treatment is yet available. Most of CVC involve mechanisms similar to those occurring during endochondral and/or intramembranous ossification. Logically, since tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) is the key-enzyme responsible for skeletal/dental mineralization, it is a promising target to limit CVC. Tools have recently been developed to inhibit its activity and preclinical studies conducted in animal models of vascular calcification already provided promising results. Nevertheless, as its name indicates, TNAP is ubiquitous and recent data indicate that it dephosphorylates different substrates in vivo to participate in other important physiological functions besides mineralization. For instance, TNAP is involved in the metabolism of pyridoxal phosphate and the production of neurotransmitters. TNAP has also been described as an anti-inflammatory enzyme able to dephosphorylate adenosine nucleotides and lipopolysaccharide. A better understanding of the full spectrum of TNAP's functions is needed to better characterize the effects of TNAP inhibition in diseases associated with CVC. In this review, after a brief description of the different types of CVC, we describe the newly uncovered additional functions of TNAP and discuss the expected consequences of its systemic inhibition in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Goettsch
- Department of Internal Medicine I, Cardiology, Medical Faculty, RWTH Aachen
University, Aachen, Germany
| | - Agnieszka Strzelecka-Kiliszek
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Lipids, Nencki Institute of Experimental
Biology, 3 Pasteur Street, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Laurence Bessueille
- Institute of Molecular and Supramolecular Chemistry and Biochemistry
(ICBMS), UMR CNRS 5246, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Bâtiment
Raulin, 43 Bd du 11 novembre 1918, Lyon 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - Thibaut Quillard
- PHY-OS Laboratory, UMR 1238 INSERM, Université de Nantes, CHU
de Nantes, France
| | - Laura Mechtouff
- Stroke Department, Hospices Civils de Lyon, France
- CREATIS Laboratory, CNRS UMR 5220, Inserm U1044, Université Claude Bernard
Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Slawomir Pikula
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Lipids, Nencki Institute of Experimental
Biology, 3 Pasteur Street, 02-093 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Emmanuelle Canet-Soulas
- CarMeN Laboratory, Univ Lyon, INSERM, INRA, INSA Lyon, Université Claude
Bernard Lyon 1, Lyon, France
| | - Millan Jose Luis
- Human Genetics Program, Sanford Burnham Prebys Medical Discovery
Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Caroline Fonta
- Brain and Cognition Research Center CerCo, CNRS UMR5549, Université de
Toulouse, France
| | - David Magne
- Institute of Molecular and Supramolecular Chemistry and Biochemistry
(ICBMS), UMR CNRS 5246, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Bâtiment
Raulin, 43 Bd du 11 novembre 1918, Lyon 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
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Adeva-Andany MM, Adeva-Contreras L, Fernández-Fernández C, González-Lucán M, Funcasta-Calderón R. Elastic tissue disruption is a major pathogenic factor to human vascular disease. Mol Biol Rep 2021; 48:4865-4878. [PMID: 34129188 DOI: 10.1007/s11033-021-06478-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 06/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Elastic fibers are essential components of the arterial extracellular matrix. They consist of the protein elastin and an array of microfibrils that support the protein and connect it to the surrounding matrix. The elastin gene encodes tropoelastin, a protein that requires extensive cross-linking to become elastin. Tropoelastin is expressed throughout human life, but its expression levels decrease with age, suggesting that the potential to synthesize elastin persists during lifetime although declines with aging. The initial abnormality documented in human atherosclerosis is fragmentation and loss of the elastic network in the medial layer of the arterial wall, suggesting an imbalance between elastic fiber injury and restoration. Damaged elastic structures are not adequately repaired by synthesis of new elastic elements. Progressive collagen accumulation follows medial elastic fiber disruption and fibrous plaques are formed, but advanced atherosclerosis lesions do not develop in the absence of prior elastic injury. Aging is associated with arterial extracellular matrix anomalies that evoke those present in early atherosclerosis. The reduction of elastic fibers with subsequent collagen accumulation leads to arterial stiffening and intima-media thickening, which are independent predictors of incident hypertension in prospective community-based studies. Arterial stiffening precedes the development of hypertension. The fundamental role of the vascular elastic network to arterial structure and function is emphasized by congenital disorders caused by mutations that disrupt normal elastic fiber production. Molecular changes in the genes coding tropoelastin, lysyl oxidase (tropoelastin cross-linking), and elastin-associated microfibrils, including fibrillin-1, fibulin-4, and fibulin-5 produce severe vascular injury due to absence of functional elastin.
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Affiliation(s)
- María M Adeva-Andany
- Nephrology Division, Internal Medicine Department, Hospital General Juan Cardona, c/ Pardo Bazán s/n, 15406, Ferrol, Spain.
| | | | - Carlos Fernández-Fernández
- Nephrology Division, Internal Medicine Department, Hospital General Juan Cardona, c/ Pardo Bazán s/n, 15406, Ferrol, Spain
| | - Manuel González-Lucán
- Nephrology Division, Internal Medicine Department, Hospital General Juan Cardona, c/ Pardo Bazán s/n, 15406, Ferrol, Spain
| | - Raquel Funcasta-Calderón
- Nephrology Division, Internal Medicine Department, Hospital General Juan Cardona, c/ Pardo Bazán s/n, 15406, Ferrol, Spain
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Abstract
Calcification is a regulated physiological process occurring in bones and teeth. However, calcification is commonly found in soft tissues in association with aging and in a variety of diseases. Over the last two decades, it has emerged that calcification occurring in diseased arteries is not simply an inevitable build-up of insoluble precipitates of calcium phosphate. In some cases, it is an active process in which transcription factors drive conversion of vascular cells to an osteoblast or chondrocyte-like phenotype, with the subsequent production of mineralizing "matrix vesicles." Early studies of bone and cartilage calcification suggested roles for cellular calcium signaling in several of the processes involved in the regulation of bone calcification. Similarly, calcium signaling has recently been highlighted as an important component in the mechanisms regulating pathological calcification. The emerging hypothesis is that ectopic/pathological calcification occurs in tissues in which there is an imbalance in the regulatory mechanisms that actively prevent calcification. This review highlights the various ways that calcium signaling regulates tissue calcification, with a particular focus on pathological vascular calcification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diane Proudfoot
- Signalling Division, Babraham Institute, Babraham, Cambridge CB22 3AT, United Kingdom
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Adeva-Andany MM, Castro-Quintela E, Fernández-Fernández C, Carneiro-Freire N, Vila-Altesor M. The role of collagen homeostasis in the pathogenesis of vascular disease associated to insulin resistance. Diabetes Metab Syndr 2019; 13:1877-1883. [PMID: 31235109 DOI: 10.1016/j.dsx.2019.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- María M Adeva-Andany
- Internal Medicine Department, Hospital General Juan Cardona, c/ Pardo Bazán s/n, 15406, Ferrol, Spain.
| | - Elvira Castro-Quintela
- Internal Medicine Department, Hospital General Juan Cardona, c/ Pardo Bazán s/n, 15406, Ferrol, Spain
| | | | - Natalia Carneiro-Freire
- Internal Medicine Department, Hospital General Juan Cardona, c/ Pardo Bazán s/n, 15406, Ferrol, Spain
| | - Matilde Vila-Altesor
- Internal Medicine Department, Hospital General Juan Cardona, c/ Pardo Bazán s/n, 15406, Ferrol, Spain
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Chatrou MLL, Cleutjens JP, van der Vusse GJ, Roijers RB, Mutsaers PHA, Schurgers LJ. Intra-Section Analysis of Human Coronary Arteries Reveals a Potential Role for Micro-Calcifications in Macrophage Recruitment in the Early Stage of Atherosclerosis. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0142335. [PMID: 26555788 PMCID: PMC4640818 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0142335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2015] [Accepted: 10/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Vascular calcification is associated with poor cardiovascular outcome. Histochemical analysis of calcification and the expression of proteins involved in mineralization are usually based on whole section analysis, thereby often ignoring regional differences in atherosclerotic lesions. At present, limited information is available about factors involved in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis. AIM OF THIS STUDY This study investigates the intra-section association of micro-calcifications with markers for atherosclerosis in randomly chosen section areas of human coronary arteries. Moreover, the possible causal relationship between calcifying vascular smooth muscle cells and inflammation was explored in vitro. TECHNICAL APPROACH To gain insights into the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis, we performed analysis of the distribution of micro-calcifications using a 3-MeV proton microbeam. Additionally, we performed systematic analyses of 30 to 40 regions of 12 coronary sections obtained from 6 patients including histology and immuno-histochemistry. Section areas were classified according to CD68 positivity. In vitro experiments using human vascular smooth muscle cells (hVSMCs) were performed to evaluate causal relationships between calcification and inflammation. RESULTS From each section multiple areas were randomly chosen and subsequently analyzed. Depositions of calcium crystals at the micrometer scale were already observed in areas with early pre-atheroma type I lesions. Micro-calcifications were initiated at the elastica interna concomitantly with upregulation of the uncarboxylated form of matrix Gla-protein (ucMGP). Both the amount of calcium crystals and ucMGP staining increased from type I to IV atherosclerotic lesions. Osteochondrogenic markers BMP-2 and osteocalcin were only significantly increased in type IV atheroma lesions, and at this stage correlated with the degree of calcification. From atheroma area type III onwards a considerable number of CD68 positive cells were observed in combination with calcification, suggesting a pro-inflammatory effect of micro-calcifications. In vitro, invasion assays revealed chemoattractant properties of cell-culture medium of calcifying vascular smooth muscle cells towards THP-1 cells, which implies pro-inflammatory effect of calcium deposits. Additionally, calcifying hVSMCs revealed a pro-inflammatory profile as compared to non-calcifying hVSMCs. CONCLUSION Our data indicate that calcification of VSMCs is one of the earliest events in the genesis of atherosclerosis, which strongly correlates with ucMGP staining. Our findings suggest that loss of calcification inhibitors and/or failure of inhibitory capacity is causative for the early precipitation of calcium, with concomitant increased inflammation followed by osteochondrogenic transdifferentiation of VSMCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martijn L. L. Chatrou
- Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Jack P. Cleutjens
- Department of Pathology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Ger J. van der Vusse
- Department of Physiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
| | - Ruben B. Roijers
- Cyclotron Laboratory, Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Peter H. A. Mutsaers
- Cyclotron Laboratory, Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, the Netherlands
| | - Leon J. Schurgers
- Department of Biochemistry, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University, Maastricht, the Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Bessueille L, Magne D. Inflammation: a culprit for vascular calcification in atherosclerosis and diabetes. Cell Mol Life Sci 2015; 72:2475-89. [PMID: 25746430 PMCID: PMC11113748 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-015-1876-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2014] [Revised: 02/06/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
It is today acknowledged that aging is associated with a low-grade chronic inflammatory status, and that inflammation exacerbates age-related diseases such as osteoporosis, Alzheimer's disease, atherosclerosis and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Vascular calcification is a complication that also occurs during aging, in particular in association with atherosclerosis and T2DM. Recent studies provided compelling evidence that vascular calcification is associated with inflammatory status and is enhanced by inflammatory cytokines. In the present review, we propose on one hand to highlight the most important and recent findings on the cellular and molecular mechanisms of vascular inflammation in atherosclerosis and T2DM. On the other hand, we will present the effects of inflammatory mediators on the trans-differentiation of vascular smooth muscle cell and on the deposition of crystals. Since vascular calcification significantly impacts morbidity and mortality in affected individuals, a better understanding of its induction and development will pave the way to develop new therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. Bessueille
- University of Lyon, ICBMS UMR CNRS 5246, Bâtiment Raulin, 43 Bd du 11 novembre 1918, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
| | - D. Magne
- University of Lyon, ICBMS UMR CNRS 5246, Bâtiment Raulin, 43 Bd du 11 novembre 1918, 69622 Villeurbanne Cedex, France
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8
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Affiliation(s)
- Zohara Sternberg
- Department of Neurology, Stroke Center, Buffalo Medical Center, Buffalo, NY, USA
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9
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Calcium micro-depositions in jugular truncular venous malformations revealed by Synchrotron-based XRF imaging. Sci Rep 2014; 4:6540. [PMID: 25286775 PMCID: PMC4187013 DOI: 10.1038/srep06540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2014] [Accepted: 09/09/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
It has been recently demonstrated that the internal jugular vein may exhibit abnormalities classified as truncular venous malformations (TVMs). The investigation of possible morphological and biochemical anomalies at jugular tissue level could help to better understand the link between brain venous drainage and neurodegenerative disorders, recently found associated with jugular TVMs. To this end we performed sequential X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) analyses on jugular tissue samples from two TVM patients and two control subjects, using complementary energies at three different synchrotrons. This investigation, coupled with conventional histological analyses, revealed anomalous micro-formations in the pathological tissues and allowed the determination of their elemental composition. Rapid XRF analyses on large tissue areas at 12.74 keV showed an increased Ca presence in the pathological samples, mainly localized in tunica adventitia microvessels. Investigations at lower energy demonstrated that the high Ca level corresponded to micro-calcifications, also containing P and Mg. We suggest that advanced synchrotron XRF micro-spectroscopy is an important analytical tool in revealing biochemical changes, which cannot be accessed by conventional investigations. Further research on a larger number of samples is needed to understand the pathogenic significance of Ca micro-depositions detected on the intramural vessels of vein walls affected by TVMs.
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Side-specific endothelial-dependent regulation of aortic valve calcification: interplay of hemodynamics and nitric oxide signaling. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2013; 182:1922-31. [PMID: 23499458 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2013.01.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2012] [Revised: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 01/18/2013] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Arterial endothelial cells maintain vascular homeostasis and vessel tone in part through the secretion of nitric oxide (NO). In this study, we determined how aortic valve endothelial cells (VEC) regulate aortic valve interstitial cell (VIC) phenotype and matrix calcification through NO. Using an anchored in vitro collagen hydrogel culture system, we demonstrate that three-dimensionally cultured porcine VIC do not calcify in osteogenic medium unless under mechanical stress. Co-culture with porcine VEC, however, significantly attenuated VIC calcification through inhibition of myofibroblastic activation, osteogenic differentiation, and calcium deposition. Incubation with the NO donor DETA-NO inhibited VIC osteogenic differentiation and matrix calcification, whereas incubation with the NO blocker l-NAME augmented calcification even in 3D VIC-VEC co-culture. Aortic VEC, but not VIC, expressed endothelial NO synthase (eNOS) in both porcine and human valves, which was reduced in osteogenic medium. eNOS expression was reduced in calcified human aortic valves in a side-specific manner. Porcine leaflets exposed to the soluble guanylyl cyclase inhibitor ODQ increased osteocalcin and α-smooth muscle actin expression. Finally, side-specific shear stress applied to porcine aortic valve leaflet endothelial surfaces increased cGMP production in VEC. Valve endothelial-derived NO is a natural inhibitor of the early phases of valve calcification and therefore may be an important regulator of valve homeostasis and pathology.
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Cilla M, Monterde D, Peña E, Martínez MÁ. Does microcalcification increase the risk of rupture? Proc Inst Mech Eng H 2013; 227:588-99. [DOI: 10.1177/0954411913479530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Rupture of atherosclerotic plaque, which is related to maximal stress conditions in the plaque among others, is a major cause of mortality. More careful examination of stress distributions in atherosclerotic plaques reports that it could be due to local stress behaviors at critical sites caused by cap thinning, inflammation, macroscopic heterogeneity, and recently, the presence of microcalcifications. However, the role of microcalcifications is not yet fully understood, and most finite element models of blood vessels with atheroma plaque ignore the heterogeneity of the plaque constituents at the microscale. The goal of this work is to investigate the effect of microcalcifications on the stress field of an atheroma plaque vessel section. This is achieved by performing a parametric finite element study, assuming a plane strain hypothesis, of a coronary artery section with eccentric atheroma plaque and one microcalcification incorporated. The geometrical parameters used to define and design the idealized coronary plaque anatomy and the microcalcification were the fibrous cap thickness and the microcalcification ratio, angle and eccentricity. We could conclude that microcalcifications should be considered in the modeling of this kind of problems since they cause a significant alteration of the vulnerable risk by increasing the maximum maximal principal stress up to 32%, although this increase of stress is not uniform (12% on average). The obtained results show that the fibrous cap thickness, the microcalcification ratio and the microcalcification eccentricity, in combination with the microcalcification angle, appear to be the key morphological parameters that play a determinant role in the maximal principal stress and accordingly in the rupture risk of the plaque.
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Affiliation(s)
- Myriam Cilla
- Applied Mechanics and Bioengineering, Aragón Institute of Engineering Research, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBER-BBN-Centro de Investigación en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - David Monterde
- Applied Mechanics and Bioengineering, Aragón Institute of Engineering Research, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Estefanía Peña
- Applied Mechanics and Bioengineering, Aragón Institute of Engineering Research, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBER-BBN-Centro de Investigación en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Miguel Á Martínez
- Applied Mechanics and Bioengineering, Aragón Institute of Engineering Research, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
- CIBER-BBN-Centro de Investigación en Red en Bioingeniería, Biomateriales y Nanomedicina, Zaragoza, Spain
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13
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Arnold BA, Xiang P, Budoff MJ, Mao SS. Very small calcifications are detected and scored in the coronary arteries from small voxel MDCT images using a new automated/calibrated scoring method with statistical and patient specific plaque definitions. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2011; 28:1193-204. [DOI: 10.1007/s10554-011-9914-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2010] [Accepted: 06/13/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Roijers RB, Debernardi N, Cleutjens JPM, Schurgers LJ, Mutsaers PHA, van der Vusse GJ. Microcalcifications in early intimal lesions of atherosclerotic human coronary arteries. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY 2011; 178:2879-87. [PMID: 21531376 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajpath.2011.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2010] [Revised: 01/04/2011] [Accepted: 02/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Although calcium (Ca) precipitation may play a pathogenic role in atherosclerosis, information on temporal patterns of microcalcifications in human coronary arteries, their relation to expression of calcification-regulating proteins, and colocalization with iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) is scarce. Human coronary arteries were analyzed post mortem with a proton microprobe for element concentrations and stained (immuno)histochemically for morphological and calcification-regulating proteins. Microcalcifications were occasionally observed in preatheroma type I atherosclerotic intimal lesions. Their abundance increased in type II, III, and IV lesions. Moreover, their appearance preceded increased expression of calcification-regulating proteins, such as osteocalcin and bone morphogenetic protein-2. In contrast, their presence coincided with increased expression of uncarboxylated matrix Gla protein (MGP), whereas the content of carboxylated MGP was increased in type III and IV lesions, indicating delayed posttranslational conversion of biologically inactive into active MGP. Ca/phosphorus ratios of the microcalcifications varied from 1.6 to 3.0, including amorphous Ca phosphates. Approximately 75% of microcalcifications colocalized with the accumulation of Fe and Zn. We conclude that Ca microprecipitation occurs in the early stages of atherosclerosis, inferring a pathogenic role in the sequel of events, resulting in overt atherosclerotic lesions. Microcalcifications may be caused by local events triggering the precipitation of Ca rather than by increased expression of calcification-regulating proteins. The high degree of colocalization with Fe and Zn suggests a mutual relationship between these trace elements and early deposition of Ca salts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben B Roijers
- Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands.
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Butcher JT, Mahler GJ, Hockaday LA. Aortic valve disease and treatment: the need for naturally engineered solutions. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2011; 63:242-68. [PMID: 21281685 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2011.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2010] [Revised: 01/05/2011] [Accepted: 01/14/2011] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
The aortic valve regulates unidirectional flow of oxygenated blood to the myocardium and arterial system. The natural anatomical geometry and microstructural complexity ensures biomechanically and hemodynamically efficient function. The compliant cusps are populated with unique cell phenotypes that continually remodel tissue for long-term durability within an extremely demanding mechanical environment. Alteration from normal valve homeostasis arises from genetic and microenvironmental (mechanical) sources, which lead to congenital and/or premature structural degeneration. Aortic valve stenosis pathobiology shares some features of atherosclerosis, but its final calcification endpoint is distinct. Despite its broad and significant clinical significance, very little is known about the mechanisms of normal valve mechanobiology and mechanisms of disease. This is reflected in the paucity of predictive diagnostic tools, early stage interventional strategies, and stagnation in regenerative medicine innovation. Tissue engineering has unique potential for aortic valve disease therapy, but overcoming current design pitfalls will require even more multidisciplinary effort. This review summarizes the latest advancements in aortic valve research and highlights important future directions.
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Kristanto W, van Ooijen PMA, Groen JM, Vliegenthart R, Oudkerk M. Small calcified coronary atherosclerotic plaque simulation model: minimal size and attenuation detectable by 64-MDCT and MicroCT. Int J Cardiovasc Imaging 2011; 28:843-53. [PMID: 21509430 PMCID: PMC3360866 DOI: 10.1007/s10554-011-9869-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2010] [Accepted: 04/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Zero calcium score may not reflect the absence of calcifications as small calcifications could be missed. This study aimed to evaluate minimal size and minimal attenuation of coronary calcifications detectable by computed tomography (CT) and to determine the minimal spatial resolution required for detecting calcification onset. Using open source CT simulation software, CTSim©, several 50%-stenotic coronary artery phantoms were designed with 5 μm resolution, realistic morphology and tissue-specific Hounsfield Unit (HU) values. The plaque had an attenuation resembling fibrous plaque and contained a single calcification. X-ray projections were simulated with settings resembling non-contrast-enhanced 64 multi detector-row CT (64-MDCT). Scanning and reconstruction were simulated with spatial resolution of a 64-MDCT (0.4mm) and of a MicroCT (48 μm). Starting from a single calcium granule, the calcification was simulated to grow in size and attenuation until it could be detected using clinically accepted calcium determination scheme on MicroCT and 64-MDCT images. The smallest coronary calcifications detectable at MicroCT and 64-MDCT, which had a realistic attenuation (−1,024 to 3,072 HU), were of 25 μm and 215 μm diameter, respectively. The area was overestimated 7.7 and 8.8 times, respectively. Calcifications with smaller size need to have an unrealistically high attenuation to be detectable by 64-MDCT. In conclusion, 64-MDCT is only able to detect coronary calcifications with minimal diameter of 215 μm. Consequently, early onset of calcification in coronary plaque will remain invisible when using CT and a zero calcium score can not exclude the presence of coronary calcification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wisnumurti Kristanto
- Department of Radiology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, P.O. BOX 30001, 9700RB, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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17
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Wenk JF. Numerical modeling of stress in stenotic arteries with microcalcifications: a parameter sensitivity study. J Biomech Eng 2011; 133:014503. [PMID: 21186905 DOI: 10.1115/1.4003128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
As a follow-up to the work presented in Wenk et al. (2010, "Numerical Modeling of Stress in Stenotic Arteries With Microcalcifications: A Micromechanical Approximation," ASME J. Biomech. Eng., 132, p. 091011), a formal sensitivity study was conducted in which several model parameters were varied. The previous work only simulated a few combinations of the parameters. In the present study, the fibrous cap thickness, longitudinal position of the region of microcalcifications, and volume fraction of microcalcifications were varied over a broader range of values. The goal of the present work is to investigate the effects of localized regions of microcalcifications on the stress field of atherosclerotic plaque caps in a section of carotid artery. More specifically, the variations in the magnitude and location of the maximum circumferential stress were assessed for a range of parameters using a global sensitivity analysis method known as Sobol' indices. The stress was calculated by performing finite element simulations of three-dimensional fluid-structure interaction models, while the sensitivity indices were computed using a Monte Carlo scheme. The results indicate that cap thickness plays a significant role in the variation in the magnitude of the maximum circumferential stress, with the sensitivity to volume fraction increasing when the region of microcalcification is located at the shoulder. However, the volume fraction played a larger role in the variation in the location of the maximum circumferential stress. This matches the finding of the previous study (Wenk et al., 2010, "Numerical Modeling of Stress in Stenotic Arteries With Microcalcifications: A Micromechanical Approximation," ASME J. Biomech. Eng., 132, p. 091011), which indicates that the maximum circumferential stress always shifts to the region of microcalcification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan F Wenk
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California-San Francisco, CA 94121, USA.
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18
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Wenk JF, Papadopoulos P, Zohdi TI. Numerical modeling of stress in stenotic arteries with microcalcifications: a micromechanical approximation. J Biomech Eng 2011; 132:091011. [PMID: 20815645 DOI: 10.1115/1.4001351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Most finite element models of atherosclerotic arteries do not account for the heterogeneity of the plaque constituents at the microscale. Failure of plaque lesions has been shown to be a local event, linked to stress concentrations caused by cap thinning, inflammation, macroscopic heterogeneity, and recently, the presence of microcalcifications. There is growing evidence that microcalcifications exist in the fibrous cap of plaque lesions. However, their role is not yet fully understood. The goal of the present work is to investigate the effects of localized regions of microcalcifications on the stress field of atherosclerotic plaque caps in a section of carotid artery. This is achieved by performing finite element simulations of three-dimensional fluid-structure interaction models. The material response in the region of microcalcification is modeled using a combination of finite elements, homogenization theory, and a stress concentration function that approximates the average local stresses in the fibrous tissue and microcalcification phases. The results indicate that the circumferential stress in the fibrous tissue phase increases as the volume fraction of microcalcifications is increased, and that the stress exceeds a critical threshold when the fibrous cap thickness is decreased. Furthermore, the presence of the microcalcifications significantly influences the distribution of stress by shifting the maximum circumferential stress away from the cap shoulders, where failure is most common when the effective region of microcalcification is located at the center of the cap. This is a possible explanation of why 40% of plaque ruptures occur away from the shoulder region of the cap.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan F Wenk
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California-Berkeley, CA 94720-1740, USA.
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19
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Arnold BA, Budoff MJ, Child J, Xiang P, Mao SS. Coronary calcium test phantom containing true CaHA microspheres for evaluation of advanced CT calcium scoring methods. J Cardiovasc Comput Tomogr 2010; 4:322-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcct.2010.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2010] [Revised: 07/19/2010] [Accepted: 08/09/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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20
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Debernardi N, Roijers RB, Krams R, de Crom R, Mutsaers PHA, van der Vusse GJ. Microcalcifications in atherosclerotic lesion of apolipoprotein E-deficient mouse. Int J Exp Pathol 2010; 91:485-94. [PMID: 20804542 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2613.2010.00729.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence is accumulating that calcium-rich microdeposits in the vascular wall might play a crucial role in the onset and progression of atherosclerosis. Here we investigated an atherosclerotic lesion of the carotid artery in an established murine model, i.e. the apolipoprotein E-deficient (APOE(-/-) ) mouse to identify (i) the presence of microcalcifications, if any, (ii) the elemental composition of microcalcifications with special reference to calcium/phosphorus mass ratio and (iii) co-localization of increased concentrations of iron and zinc with microcalcifications. Atherosclerosis was induced by a flow-divider placed around the carotid artery resulting in low and high shear-stress regions. Element composition was assessed with a proton microprobe. Microcalcifications, predominantly present in the thickened intima of the low shear-stress region, were surrounded by areas with normal calcium levels, indicating that calcium-precipitation is a local event. The diameter of intimal microcalcifications varied from 6 to 70 μm. Calcium/phosphorus ratios of microcalcifications varied from 0.3 to 4.8, mainly corresponding to the ratio of amorphous calcium-phosphate. Increased iron and zinc concentrations commonly co-localized with microcalcifications. Our findings indicate that the atherosclerotic process in the murine carotid artery is associated with locally accumulated calcium, iron and zinc. The calcium-rich deposits resemble amorphous calcium phosphate rather than pure hydroxyapatite. We propose that the APOE(-/-) mouse, in which atherosclerosis was evoked by a flow-divider, offers a useful model to investigate the pathophysiological significance of accumulation of elements such as calcium, iron and zinc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicola Debernardi
- Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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21
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Relucenti M, Heyn R, Petruzziello L, Pugliese G, Taurino M, Familiari G. Detecting microcalcifications in atherosclerotic plaques by a simple trichromic staining method for epoxy embedded carotid endarterectomies. Eur J Histochem 2010; 54:e33. [PMID: 20819772 PMCID: PMC3167311 DOI: 10.4081/ejh.2010.e33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2010] [Accepted: 06/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Atherosclerotic plaques have a high probability of undergoing rapid progression to stenosis, becoming responsible of acute coronary syndrome or stroke. Microcalcifications may act as enhancers of atherosclerotic plaque vulnerability. Considering that calcifications with a diameter smalller than 10 µm in paraffin embedded tissue are rather difficult to detect, our aim was to analyze microcalcifications on semithin sections from epoxy resin embedded samples of carotid endarterectomies using an original trichromic stain (methylene blue-azur B - basic fuchsine - alizarin red). We have compared samples stained either with our method, methylene blue-azur B alone or with Von Kossa staining, and methylene blue-azur B -basic fuchsine alone or with Von Kossa staining. Our method resulted to be simple and fast (ca. 2 min), it gives a sharp general contrast for all structures and allows to easy identify collagen and elastin. In addition, gray-green colour associated to intracellular lipid droplets evidences foam cells, which are particularly abundant in endarterectomies samples. Mast cells and their metachromatic granules are also well recognized. Calcifications over 0,5 µm are clearly recognizable. In conclusion, microcalcifications are clearly distinguished from the extracellular matrix in spite of their reduced dimensions. Methylene blue-azur B-basic fuchsine-alizarin red method is easy to use, reproducible, and is particularly suitable for the identification of microcalcifications in the morphological analysis of atherosclerotic plaques.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Relucenti
- Laboratory of Electron Microscopy Pietro M. Motta, Department of Human Anatomic, Histologic, Forensic and Locomotor Apparatus Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, via Alfonso Borelli 50, Rome, Italy.
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22
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Affiliation(s)
- Reagan McRae
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
| | - Pritha Bagchi
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
| | - S. Sumalekshmy
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
| | - Christoph J. Fahrni
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, 901 Atlantic Drive, Atlanta, Georgia 30332
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23
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Rajendran R, Ronald JA, Ye T, Minqin R, Chen JW, Weissleder R, Rutt BK, Halliwell B, Watt F. Nuclear microscopy: a novel technique for quantitative imaging of gadolinium distribution within tissue sections. MICROSCOPY AND MICROANALYSIS : THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF MICROSCOPY SOCIETY OF AMERICA, MICROBEAM ANALYSIS SOCIETY, MICROSCOPICAL SOCIETY OF CANADA 2009; 15:338-344. [PMID: 19575834 PMCID: PMC2802450 DOI: 10.1017/s1431927609090813] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
All clinically-approved and many novel gadolinium (Gd)-based contrast agents used to enhance signal intensity in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are optically silent. To verify MRI results, a "gold standard" that can map and quantify Gd down to the parts per million (ppm) levels is required. Nuclear microscopy is a relatively new technique that has this capability and is composed of a combination of three ion beam techniques: scanning transmission ion microscopy, Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, and particle induced X-ray emission used in conjunction with a high energy proton microprobe. In this proof-of-concept study, we show that in diseased aortic vessel walls obtained at 2 and 4 h after intravenous injection of the myeloperoxidase-sensitive MRI agent, bis-5-hydroxytryptamide-diethylenetriamine-pentaacetate gadolinium, there was a time-dependant Gd clearance (2 h = 18.86 ppm, 4 h = 8.65 ppm). As expected, the control animal, injected with the clinically-approved conventional agent diethylenetriamine-pentaacetate gadolinium and sacrificed 1 week after injection, revealed no significant residual Gd in the tissue. Similar to known in vivo Gd pharmacokinetics, we found that Gd concentration dropped by a factor of 2 in vessel wall tissue in 1.64 h. Further high-resolution studies revealed that Gd was relatively uniformly distributed, consistent with random agent diffusion. We conclude that nuclear microscopy is potentially very useful for validation studies involving Gd-based magnetic resonance contrast agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reshmi Rajendran
- Centre for Ion Beam Applications, Department of Physics, National University of Singapore, Singapore.
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24
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Lobbes MBI, Miserus RJJHM, Heeneman S, Passos VL, Mutsaers PHA, Debernardi N, Misselwitz B, Post M, Daemen MJAP, van Engelshoven JMA, Leiner T, Kooi ME. Atherosclerosis: contrast-enhanced MR imaging of vessel wall in rabbit model--comparison of gadofosveset and gadopentetate dimeglumine. Radiology 2009; 250:682-91. [PMID: 19244042 DOI: 10.1148/radiol.2503080875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate the potential of gadofosveset for contrast material-enhanced magnetic resonance (MR) imaging of plaque in a rabbit model of atherosclerosis. MATERIALS AND METHODS All experiments were approved by the animal ethics committee. Thirty-one New Zealand White rabbits were included in one of four study groups: animals with atherosclerosis imaged with gadofosveset (n = 10) or gadopentetate dimeglumine (n = 7) and control animals imaged with gadofosveset (n = 7) or gadopentetate dimeglumine (n = 7). Aortic atherosclerosis was induced through endothelial denudation combined with a cholesterol-enriched diet. Control rabbits underwent a sham surgical procedure and received a regular diet. After 8 weeks, pre- and postcontrast T1-weighted MR images of the aortic vessel wall were acquired. Relative signal enhancement was determined with dedicated software. Statistical analysis was performed by using a generalized linear mixed model. Immunohistochemical staining with CD31 and albumin was used to assess microvessel density and the albumin content of the vascular wall. Group differences were analyzed by using a chi(2) test. Gadofosveset spatial distribution and content within the vessel wall were determined with proton-induced x-ray emission (PIXE) analysis. RESULTS Postcontrast signal enhancement was significantly greater for atherosclerotic than for control animals imaged with gadofosveset (P = .022). Gadopentetate dimeglumine could not enable discrimination between normal and atherosclerotic vessel walls (P = .428). PIXE analysis showed higher amounts of gadopentetate dimeglumine than gadofosveset in both atherosclerotic and normal rabbit aortas. Immunohistochemical staining revealed the presence of albumin and increased microvessel density in the vascular walls of atherosclerotic rabbits. CONCLUSION These results suggest that gadofosveset can be used to differentiate between atherosclerotic and normal rabbit vessel walls. SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL http://radiology.rsnajnls.org/cgi/content/full/250/3/682/DC1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc B I Lobbes
- Department of Radiology, Cardiovascular Research Institute Maastricht, Maastricht University Hospital, P. Debyeplein 25, PO Box 5800, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands
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25
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George A, Movahed A. Coronary artery calcium scores: current thinking and clinical applications. Open Cardiovasc Med J 2008; 2:87-92. [PMID: 19337360 PMCID: PMC2627524 DOI: 10.2174/1874192400802010087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2008] [Revised: 08/28/2008] [Accepted: 09/02/2008] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Most incident coronary disease occurs in previously asymptomatic individuals who were considered to be at a lower risk by traditional screening methods. There is a definite advantage if these individuals could be reclassified into a higher risk category, thereby impacting disease outcomes favorably. Coronary artery calcium scores have been recognized as an independent marker for adverse prognosis in coronary disease. Multiple population based studies have acknowledged the shortcomings of risk prediction models such as the Framingham risk score or the Procam score. The science behind coronary calcium is discussed briefly followed by a review of current thinking on calcium scores. An attempt has been made to summarize the appropriate indications and use of calcium scores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anil George
- Professor of Medicine and Radiology, Associate Division Chief, Director of Nuclear Cardiology, Cardiovascular Science Department, Director of Cardiovascular Imaging Center, The Brody School of Medicine, Pitt County Memorial Hospital, 600 Moye Boulevard, Greenville, NC 27834, USA
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