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Lin TE, Darvishi S. A Brief Review of In Situ and Operando Electrochemical Analysis of Bacteria by Scanning Probes. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:695. [PMID: 37504094 PMCID: PMC10377567 DOI: 10.3390/bios13070695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Bacteria are similar to social organisms that engage in critical interactions with one another, forming spatially structured communities. Despite extensive research on the composition, structure, and communication of bacteria, the mechanisms behind their interactions and biofilm formation are not yet fully understood. To address this issue, scanning probe techniques such as atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM), scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM), and scanning ion-conductance microscopy (SICM) have been utilized to analyze bacteria. This review article focuses on summarizing the use of electrochemical scanning probes for investigating bacteria, including analysis of electroactive metabolites, enzymes, oxygen consumption, ion concentrations, pH values, biofilms, and quorum sensing molecules to provide a better understanding of bacterial interactions and communication. SECM has been combined with other techniques, such as AFM, inverted optical microscopy, SICM, and fluorescence microscopy. This allows a comprehensive study of the surfaces of bacteria while also providing more information on their metabolic activity. In general, the use of scanning probes for the detection of bacteria has shown great promise and has the potential to provide a powerful tool for the study of bacterial physiology and the detection of bacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Sorour Darvishi
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Berkeley Sensor and Actuator Center, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
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2
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Karg A, Rößler T, Mark A, Markus P, Lauster T, Helfricht N, Papastavrou G. A Versatile and Simple Approach to Electrochemical Colloidal Probes for Direct Force Measurements. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2021; 37:13537-13547. [PMID: 34752120 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c01557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The colloidal probe technique, which is based on micrometer-sized colloidal particles that are attached to the end of a cantilever, revolutionized direct force measurements by atomic force microscopy (AFM). Its major advantages are a defined interaction geometry and a high force sensitivity. Here, we present a versatile and simple approach for preparing spherical electrodes in the micrometer range on an otherwise insulated AFM cantilever. Thereby, it becomes possible to combine direct force measurements and potentiostatic control of the probe for various types of electrode materials. Two examples for the use of such electrochemical colloidal probes (eCP) are presented: First, on soft, conductive films of poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped with poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS) the adhesion behavior was studied. The current through the contact area between the probe and film remained constant until the jump-out of contact, indicating a constant geometrical contact area. Second, the long-range forces due to diffuse layer overlap between an eCP and a glass surface have been determined as a function of the externally applied potential. The resulting interaction force profiles are in good agreement with those calculated based on charge regulation and solutions of the full Poisson-Boltzmann equation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Karg
- Physical Chemistry II, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
- Bavarian Center for Battery Technology, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Tamino Rößler
- Physical Chemistry II, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Andreas Mark
- Physical Chemistry II, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Paul Markus
- Physical Chemistry II, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Tobias Lauster
- Physical Chemistry II, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Nicolas Helfricht
- Physical Chemistry II, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
| | - Georg Papastavrou
- Physical Chemistry II, University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
- Bavarian Center for Battery Technology, Universitätsstrasse 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany
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3
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Zhang B, Pan N, Fan X, Lu L, Wang X. Real-time effects of Cd(II) on the cellular membrane permeability. Analyst 2021; 146:5973-5979. [PMID: 34499067 DOI: 10.1039/d1an00827g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Cell membrane permeability is one of the main indicators of cytotoxicity and related to many critical biological pathways. Here, we determined the Cd2+-induced membrane permeability of human MCF-7 cells using ferrocene methanol molecular probes based on scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). The cell height and topography were examined with an impermeable Ru(NH3)6Cl3 probe. The membrane permeability exhibited no significant changes when the Cd2+ incubation time was less than 2 h and its concentration was less than 40 μM. The permeability increased when the Cd2+ concentration was greater than 60 μM, or when the incubation time was longer than 3 h. From the combined 3-(4,5-di-methylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide and cytoskeleton imaging experiments, it was found that the changes occurred because the cells exhibited a defensive mode and their membranes contracted when treated with a low concentration of Cd2+ for a short time. However, the cell membranes were irreversibly damaged when the cytoskeleton structures were destroyed, and the cell activities decreased at high concentrations over long periods. Interestingly, through the comparison with an x-scan study, it was found that DPV technology shows a higher performance in the detection of changes in the membrane permeability. Using a combination of cytoskeleton fluorescence imaging and cell-viability tests, the effect of the cadmium metal on the cell membrane permeability can be explored deeper and more comprehensively. This study provides a new idea for exploring the changes in the cell membrane permeability and may be helpful for rapid evaluation of cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Biao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China.
| | - Na Pan
- Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China.
| | - Xiaoyin Fan
- Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China.
| | - Liping Lu
- Key Laboratory of Beijing on Regional Air Pollution Control, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China. .,Center of Excellence for Environmental Safety and Biological Effects, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
| | - Xiayan Wang
- Center of Excellence for Environmental Safety and Biological Effects, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing 100124, China
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4
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A critical review of fundamentals and applications of electrochemical development and imaging of latent fingerprints. Electrochim Acta 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2021.138798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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Malik AH, Zehra N, Ahmad M, Parui R, Iyer PK. Advances in conjugated polymers for visualization of latent fingerprints: a critical perspective. NEW J CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj04131a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Owing to unique photophysical and structural features conjugated polymers (CPs) have demonstrated high selectivity, specificity and enhanced imaging ability and are utilized for rapid latent fingerprint development using simple processing methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akhtar Hussain Malik
- Department of Higher Education
- Govt. Degree College Sopore
- Kashmir
- India
- Department of Chemistry
| | - Nehal Zehra
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
- Guwahati
- India
| | - Muzaffer Ahmad
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
- Guwahati
- India
| | - Retwik Parui
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
- Guwahati
- India
| | - Parameswar Krishnan Iyer
- Department of Chemistry
- Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
- Guwahati
- India
- Centre for Nanotechnology
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6
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Dual microelectrodes decorated with nanotip arrays: Fabrication, characterization and spectroelectrochemical sensing. Electrochim Acta 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2019.135105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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7
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Advances and Perspectives in Chemical Imaging in Cellular Environments Using Electrochemical Methods. CHEMOSENSORS 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/chemosensors6020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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8
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Lin TE, Lu YJ, Sun CL, Pick H, Chen JP, Lesch A, Girault HH. Weiche elektrochemische Sonden zum Abbilden der Verteilung von Biomarkern und injizierten Nanomaterialien in tierischem und menschlichem Gewebe. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201709271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sitten Schweiz
| | - Yu-Jen Lu
- Department of Neurosurgery; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
- Chang Gung University College of Medicine; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
| | - Chia-Liang Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering; Chang Gung University; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
| | - Horst Pick
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry of Macromolecules; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL; 1015 Lausanne Schweiz
| | - Jyh-Ping Chen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering; Chang Gung University; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery and Craniofacial Research Center; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sitten Schweiz
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sitten Schweiz
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9
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Lin TE, Lu YJ, Sun CL, Pick H, Chen JP, Lesch A, Girault HH. Soft Electrochemical Probes for Mapping the Distribution of Biomarkers and Injected Nanomaterials in Animal and Human Tissues. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:16498-16502. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201709271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Yu-Jen Lu
- Department of Neurosurgery; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
- Chang Gung University College of Medicine; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
| | - Chia-Liang Sun
- Department of Neurosurgery; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering; Chang Gung University; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
| | - Horst Pick
- Laboratory of Biophysical Chemistry of Macromolecules; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL; 1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Jyh-Ping Chen
- Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering; Chang Gung University; Guishan Taoyuan 33302 Taiwan
- Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery and Craniofacial Research Center; Linkou Chang Gung Memorial Hospital; Guishan Taoyuan 33305 Taiwan
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; EPFL Valais Wallis; 1951 Sion Switzerland
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11
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Kimmich D, Taffa DH, Dosche C, Wark M, Wittstock G. Photoactivity and scattering behavior of anodically and cathodically deposited hematite photoanodes – a comparison by scanning photoelectrochemical microscopy. Electrochim Acta 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2016.03.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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12
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Lin TE, Bondarenko A, Lesch A, Pick H, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH. Untersuchung der Tyrosinase-Expression in nicht-metastatischen und metastatischen Melanomgeweben durch elektrochemische Rastersondenmikroskopie. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201509397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
| | - Alexandra Bondarenko
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
| | - Horst Pick
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Polymers and Membranes; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; CH-1015 Lausanne Schweiz
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Schweiz
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13
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Lin TE, Bondarenko A, Lesch A, Pick H, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH. Monitoring Tyrosinase Expression in Non-metastatic and Metastatic Melanoma Tissues by Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2016; 55:3813-6. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201509397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2015] [Revised: 12/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tzu-En Lin
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Alexandra Bondarenko
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Horst Pick
- Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Polymers and Membranes; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne; CH-1015 Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique; École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, EPFL Valais Wallis; CH-1951 Sion Switzerland
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14
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Kollender JP, Mardare AI, Hassel AW. Multi-Scanning Droplet Cell Microscopy (multi-SDCM) for truly parallel high throughput electrochemical experimentation. Electrochim Acta 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.04.103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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15
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Adam C, Kanoufi F, Sojic N, Etienne M. Shearforce positioning of nanoprobe electrode arrays for scanning electrochemical microscopy experiments. Electrochim Acta 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2015.04.140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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16
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Kuss S, Trinh D, Danis L, Mauzeroll J. High-Speed Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy Method for Substrate Kinetic Determination: Method and Theory. Anal Chem 2015; 87:8096-101. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b01268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Kuss
- McGill University, Chemistry Department, 801 Sherbrooke Street W., Montreal, Québec H3A 2A7, Canada
| | - Dao Trinh
- Université de la Rochelle, Laboratoire des Sciences
de l’Ingénieur Pour l’Environnement, Avenue Michel Crépeau, 17000 La Rochelle, France
| | - Laurence Danis
- McGill University, Chemistry Department, 801 Sherbrooke Street W., Montreal, Québec H3A 2A7, Canada
| | - Janine Mauzeroll
- McGill University, Chemistry Department, 801 Sherbrooke Street W., Montreal, Québec H3A 2A7, Canada
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17
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Bondarenko A, Cortés-Salazar F, Gheorghiu M, Gáspár S, Momotenko D, Stanica L, Lesch A, Gheorghiu E, Girault HH. Electrochemical push-pull probe: from scanning electrochemical microscopy to multimodal altering of cell microenvironment. Anal Chem 2015; 87:4479-86. [PMID: 25833001 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b00455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
To understand biological processes at the cellular level, a general approach is to alter the cells' environment and to study their chemical responses. Herein, we present the implementation of an electrochemical push-pull probe, which combines a microfluidic system with a microelectrode, as a tool for locally altering the microenvironment of few adherent living cells by working in two different perturbation modes, namely electrochemical (i.e., electrochemical generation of a chemical effector compound) and microfluidic (i.e., infusion of a chemical effector compound from the pushing microchannel, while simultaneously aspirating it through the pulling channel, thereby focusing the flow between the channels). The effect of several parameters such as flow rate, working distance, and probe inclination angle on the affected area of adherently growing cells was investigated both theoretically and experimentally. As a proof of concept, localized fluorescent labeling and pH changes were purposely introduced to validate the probe as a tool for studying adherent cancer cells through the control over the chemical composition of the extracellular space with high spatiotemporal resolution. A very good agreement between experimental and simulated results showed that the electrochemical perturbation mode enables to affect precisely only a few living cells localized in a high-density cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Bondarenko
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Mihaela Gheorghiu
- ‡International Centre of Biodynamics, 1B Intrarea Portocalelor Street, 060101 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Szilveszter Gáspár
- ‡International Centre of Biodynamics, 1B Intrarea Portocalelor Street, 060101 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Dmitry Momotenko
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Luciana Stanica
- ‡International Centre of Biodynamics, 1B Intrarea Portocalelor Street, 060101 Bucharest, Romania.,§Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91-95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Andreas Lesch
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Eugen Gheorghiu
- ‡International Centre of Biodynamics, 1B Intrarea Portocalelor Street, 060101 Bucharest, Romania.,§Faculty of Biology, University of Bucharest, 91-95 Splaiul Independentei, 050095 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Hubert H Girault
- †Laboratoire d'Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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18
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Nadappuram BP, McKelvey K, Byers JC, Güell AG, Colburn AW, Lazenby RA, Unwin PR. Quad-barrel multifunctional electrochemical and ion conductance probe for voltammetric analysis and imaging. Anal Chem 2015; 87:3566-73. [PMID: 25719392 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b00379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The fabrication and use of a multifunctional electrochemical probe incorporating two independent carbon working electrodes and two electrolyte-filled barrels, equipped with quasi-reference counter electrodes (QRCEs), in the end of a tapered micrometer-scale pipet is described. This "quad-probe" (4-channel probe) was fabricated by depositing carbon pyrolytically into two diagonally opposite barrels of a laser-pulled quartz quadruple-barrelled pipet. After filling the open channels with electrolyte solution, a meniscus forms at the end of the probe and covers the two working electrodes. The two carbon electrodes can be used to drive local electrochemical reactions within the meniscus while a bias between the QRCEs in the electrolyte channels provides an ion conductance signal that is used to control and position the meniscus on a surface of interest. When brought into contact with a surface, localized high resolution amperometric imaging can be achieved with the two carbon working electrodes with a spatial resolution defined by the meniscus contact area. The substrate can be an insulating material or (semi)conductor, but herein, we focus mainly on conducting substrates that can be connected as a third working electrode. Studies using both aqueous and ionic liquid electrolytes in the probe, together with gold and individual single walled carbon nanotube samples, demonstrate the utility of the technique. Substrate generation-dual tip collection measurements are shown to be characterized by high collection efficiencies (approaching 100%). This hybrid configuration of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM) and scanning electrochemical cell microscopy (SECCM) should be powerful for future applications in electrode mapping, as well as in studies of insulating materials as demonstrated by transient spot redox-titration measurements at an electrostatically charged Teflon surface and at a pristine calcite surface, where a functionalized probe is used to follow the immediate pH change due to dissolution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kim McKelvey
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Joshua C Byers
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Aleix G Güell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Alex W Colburn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A Lazenby
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
| | - Patrick R Unwin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, United Kingdom
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20
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Kang H, Hwang S, Kwak J. A hydrogel pen for electrochemical reaction and its applications for 3D printing. NANOSCALE 2015; 7:994-1001. [PMID: 25469501 DOI: 10.1039/c4nr06041e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
A hydrogel pen consisting of a microscopic pyramid containing an electrolyte offers a localized electroactive area on the nanometer scale via controlled contact of the apex with a working electrode. The hydrogel pen merges the fine control of atomic force microscopy with non-linear diffusion of an ultramicroelectrode, producing a faradaic current that depends on the small electroactive area. The theoretical and experimental investigations of the mass transport behavior within the hydrogel reveal that the steady-state current from the faradaic reaction is linearly proportional to the deformed length of the hydrogel pen by contact, i.e. signal transduction of deformation to an electrochemical signal, which enables the fine control of the electroactive area in the nanometer-scale regime. Combined with electrodeposition, localized electrochemistry of the hydrogel pen results in the ability to fabricate small sizes (110 nm in diameter), tall heights (up to 30 μm), and arbitrary structures, thereby indicating an additive process in 3 dimensions by localized electrodeposition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hosuk Kang
- Department of Chemistry, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), Daejeon 305-701, Republic of Korea.
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21
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Li MSM, Filice FP, Ding Z. A time course study of cadmium effect on membrane permeability of single human bladder cancer cells using scanning electrochemical microscopy. J Inorg Biochem 2014; 136:177-83. [PMID: 24656893 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2014.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2013] [Revised: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 02/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Cd(2+) is carcinogenic to both humans and experimental animals. We present quantitative time-course imaging of Cd(2+)-induced variation in the membrane permeability of single live human bladder cancer cells (T24) to ferrocenemethanol using scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM). High temporal resolution combined with non-invasive nature renders a time-lapse SECM depth scan, a promising method to quantitatively investigate the effectiveness, kinetics, and mechanism of metal ions based on the responses of single live cells in real time. Under unstimulated conditions, T24 cells have constant membrane permeability to ferrocenemethanol of approximately 5.0×10(-5) m/s. When cadmium is added in-situ to T24 cells, the membrane permeability increases up to 3.5×10(-4) m/s, allowing more flux of ferrocenemethanol to the ultramicroelectrode tip. This suggests an increased spreading between the phospholipid heads in the cytoplasmic membrane. Membrane permeability might be used as a measure to probe cell status in practical intoxication cases. The methodology reported here can be applied to many other metals and their interactions with extracellular biomolecules, leading insights into cell physiology and pathobiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle S M Li
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Fraser P Filice
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B7, Canada
| | - Zhifeng Ding
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Western Ontario, London, ON N6A 5B7, Canada.
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22
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Kranz C. Recent advancements in nanoelectrodes and nanopipettes used in combined scanning electrochemical microscopy techniques. Analyst 2014; 139:336-52. [DOI: 10.1039/c3an01651j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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23
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Lesch A, Chen PC, Roelfs F, Dosche C, Momotenko D, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH, Wittstock G. Finger Probe Array for Topography-Tolerant Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy of Extended Samples. Anal Chem 2013; 86:713-20. [DOI: 10.1021/ac403168p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Lesch
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratoire
d’Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Po-Chung Chen
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Folkert Roelfs
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Carsten Dosche
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Dmitry Momotenko
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratoire
d’Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratoire
d’Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Laboratoire
d’Electrochimie Physique et Analytique, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gunther Wittstock
- Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, School of Mathematics
and Natural Sciences, Center of Interface Science, Department
of Chemistry, D-26111 Oldenburg, Germany
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24
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High-throughput scanning electrochemical microscopy brushing of strongly tilted and curved surfaces. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.03.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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25
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Etienne M, Moulin JP, Gourhand S. Accurate control of the electrode shape for high resolution shearforce regulated SECM. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2013.03.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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26
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27
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Meyer JN, Mathew MT, Wimmer MA, LeSuer RJ. Effect of tribolayer formation on corrosion of CoCrMo alloys investigated using scanning electrochemical microscopy. Anal Chem 2013; 85:7159-66. [PMID: 23848566 DOI: 10.1021/ac400823q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Scanning electrochemical microscopy was used to probe the topography and electrochemical activity of CoCrMo alloys mechanically polished in the presence of bovine calf serum (BCS) in a hip simulator. These substrates are made of the same alloy used in metal-on-metal bearings for artificial hip joints. The BCS serves as an in vitro substitute for the synovial fluid which forms a lubricant in the actual orthopedic device. Chemical and mechanical processes result in the formation of a tribolayer which passivates the alloy surface. Our studies of the heterogeneous electron transfer between ferrocenemethanol and the alloy indicate that the tribolayer formed on both high- and low-carbon substrates is highly heterogeneous with regions of high electrochemical activity. Whereas pits in the samples polished in the absence of BCS show the regions of highest electrochemical activity, the tribolayer-coated samples have electrochemical hot spots in topographically smooth regions of the surface. The tribolayer provides some attenuation of the electrochemical activity of the alloy but does not prevent the possibility of corrosion from occurring.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua N Meyer
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Chicago State University, Chicago, Illinois 60628, United States
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28
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Suwa M, Nakano Y, Tsukahara S, Watarai H. Faraday rotation dispersion microscopy imaging of diamagnetic and chiral liquids with pulsed magnetic field. Anal Chem 2013; 85:5176-83. [PMID: 23581712 DOI: 10.1021/ac400541k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
We have constructed an experimental setup for Faraday rotation dispersion imaging and demonstrated the performance of a novel imaging principle. By using a pulsed magnetic field and a polarized light synchronized to the magnetic field, quantitative Faraday rotation images of diamagnetic organic liquids in glass capillaries were observed. Nonaromatic hydrocarbons, benzene derivatives, and naphthalene derivatives were clearly distinguished by the Faraday rotation images due to the difference in Verdet constants. From the wavelength dispersion of the Faraday rotation images in the visible region, it was found that the resonance wavelength in the UV region, which was estimated based on the Faraday B-term, could be used as characteristic parameters for the imaging of the liquids. Furthermore, simultaneous acquisition of Faraday rotation image and natural optical rotation image was demonstrated for chiral organic liquids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masayori Suwa
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka, Japan.
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29
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Local control of protein binding and cell adhesion by patterned organic thin films. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 405:3673-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-6748-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2012] [Revised: 01/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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30
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Han L, Yuan Y, Zhang J, Zhao X, Cao Y, Hu Z, Yan Y, Dong S, Tian ZQ, Tian ZW, Zhan D. A Leveling Method Based on Current Feedback Mode of Scanning Electrochemical Microscopy. Anal Chem 2013; 85:1322-6. [DOI: 10.1021/ac303122v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lianhuan Han
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid
Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005,
China
| | - Ye Yuan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid
Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005,
China
| | - Jie Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid
Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005,
China
| | - Xuesen Zhao
- Center for Precision
Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 413, Harbin
150001, China
| | - Yongzhi Cao
- Center for Precision
Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 413, Harbin
150001, China
| | - Zhenjiang Hu
- Center for Precision
Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 413, Harbin
150001, China
| | - Yongda Yan
- Center for Precision
Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 413, Harbin
150001, China
| | - Shen Dong
- Center for Precision
Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, P.O. Box 413, Harbin
150001, China
| | - Zhong-Qun Tian
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid
Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005,
China
| | - Zhao-Wu Tian
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid
Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005,
China
| | - Dongping, Zhan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid
Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005,
China
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31
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Nanopore array derived from l-cysteine oxide/gold hybrids: Enhanced sensing platform for hydroquinone and catechol determination. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.10.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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32
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Tefashe UM, Wittstock G. Quantitative characterization of shear force regulation for scanning electrochemical microscopy. CR CHIM 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crci.2012.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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33
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Wang Y, Kececi K, Velmurugan J, Mirkin MV. Electron transfer/ion transfer mode of scanning electrochemical microscopy (SECM): a new tool for imaging and kinetic studies. Chem Sci 2013. [DOI: 10.1039/c3sc50825k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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34
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Zhan D, Yang D, Yin BS, Zhang J, Tian ZQ. Electrochemical Behaviors of Single Microcrystals of Iron Hexacyanides/NaCl Solid Solution. Anal Chem 2012; 84:9276-81. [PMID: 23026011 DOI: 10.1021/ac302053x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Dongping Zhan
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and
State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Dezhi Yang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and
State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Bing-sheng Yin
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and
State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Jie Zhang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and
State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Zhong-Qun Tian
- College of Chemistry and Chemical
Engineering, and
State Key Laboratory for Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
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35
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Lesch A, Vaske B, Meiners F, Momotenko D, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH, Wittstock G. Parallel Imaging and Template-Free Patterning of Self-Assembled Monolayers with Soft Linear Microelectrode Arrays. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:10413-6. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.201205347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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36
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Lesch A, Vaske B, Meiners F, Momotenko D, Cortés-Salazar F, Girault HH, Wittstock G. Parallele Abbildung und templatfreie Strukturierung selbstorganisierter Monoschichten mit weichen linearen Mikroelektrodenarrays. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201205347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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37
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Momotenko D, Qiao L, Cortés-Salazar F, Lesch A, Wittstock G, Girault HH. Electrochemical Push–Pull Scanner with Mass Spectrometry Detection. Anal Chem 2012; 84:6630-7. [DOI: 10.1021/ac300999v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Dmitry Momotenko
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie
Physique et Analytique, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Liang Qiao
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie
Physique et Analytique, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Fernando Cortés-Salazar
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie
Physique et Analytique, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Andreas Lesch
- Department of Pure and Applied
Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, D-26111
Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Gunther Wittstock
- Department of Pure and Applied
Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Carl von Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, D-26111
Oldenburg, Germany
| | - Hubert H. Girault
- Laboratoire d’Electrochimie
Physique et Analytique, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 6, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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38
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Xu L, Li Y, Wu S, Liu X, Su B. Imaging latent fingerprints by electrochemiluminescence. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012; 51:8068-72. [PMID: 22865566 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201203815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Linru Xu
- Institute of Microanalytical Systems, Department of Chemistry, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
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39
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Xu L, Li Y, Wu S, Liu X, Su B. Imaging Latent Fingerprints by Electrochemiluminescence. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201203815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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40
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Hydrodynamic Flow Confinement Technology in Microfluidic Perfusion Devices. MICROMACHINES 2012. [DOI: 10.3390/mi3020442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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41
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Lesch A, Momotenko D, Cortés-Salazar F, Wirth I, Tefashe UM, Meiners F, Vaske B, Girault HH, Wittstock G. Fabrication of soft gold microelectrode arrays as probes for scanning electrochemical microscopy. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2011.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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42
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Etienne M, Layoussifi B, Giornelli T, Jacquet D. SECM-based automate equipped with a shearforce detection for the characterization of large and complex samples. Electrochem commun 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.elecom.2011.11.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/14/2022] Open
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43
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Zhan D, Yang D, Zhu Y, Wu X, Tian ZQ. Fabrication and characterization of nanostructured ZnO thin film microdevices by scanning electrochemical cell microscopy. Chem Commun (Camb) 2012; 48:11449-51. [DOI: 10.1039/c2cc35809c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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44
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Batchelor-McAuley C, Dickinson EJF, Rees NV, Toghill KE, Compton RG. New Electrochemical Methods. Anal Chem 2011; 84:669-84. [DOI: 10.1021/ac2026767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Batchelor-McAuley
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Edmund J. F. Dickinson
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Neil V. Rees
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Kathryn E. Toghill
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
| | - Richard G. Compton
- Department of Chemistry, Physical & Theoretical Chemistry Laboratory, Oxford University, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3QZ, United Kingdom
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45
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Mirkin MV, Nogala W, Velmurugan J, Wang Y. Scanning electrochemical microscopy in the 21st century. Update 1: five years after. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:21196-212. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cp22376c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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