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Shen Y, Howard L, Yu XY. Secondary Ion Mass Spectral Imaging of Metals and Alloys. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 17:528. [PMID: 38276468 PMCID: PMC10820874 DOI: 10.3390/ma17020528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/20/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (SIMS) is an outstanding technique for Mass Spectral Imaging (MSI) due to its notable advantages, including high sensitivity, selectivity, and high dynamic range. As a result, SIMS has been employed across many domains of science. In this review, we provide an in-depth overview of the fundamental principles underlying SIMS, followed by an account of the recent development of SIMS instruments. The review encompasses various applications of specific SIMS instruments, notably static SIMS with time-of-flight SIMS (ToF-SIMS) as a widely used platform and dynamic SIMS with Nano SIMS and large geometry SIMS as successful instruments. We particularly focus on SIMS utility in microanalysis and imaging of metals and alloys as materials of interest. Additionally, we discuss the challenges in big SIMS data analysis and give examples of machine leaning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) for effective MSI data analysis. Finally, we recommend the outlook of SIMS development. It is anticipated that in situ and operando SIMS has the potential to significantly enhance the investigation of metals and alloys by enabling real-time examinations of material surfaces and interfaces during dynamic transformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanjie Shen
- College of Biology and Oceanography, Weifang University, 5147 Dongfeng East Street, Weifang 261061, China
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Logan Howard
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
- The Bredesen Center, 310 Ferris Hall, 1508 Middle Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
| | - Xiao-Ying Yu
- Materials Science and Technology Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
- The Bredesen Center, 310 Ferris Hall, 1508 Middle Drive, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
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2
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Priebe A, Michler J. Review of Recent Advances in Gas-Assisted Focused Ion Beam Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (FIB-TOF-SIMS). MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 16:2090. [PMID: 36903205 PMCID: PMC10003971 DOI: 10.3390/ma16052090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Revised: 02/21/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) is a powerful chemical characterization technique allowing for the distribution of all material components (including light and heavy elements and molecules) to be analyzed in 3D with nanoscale resolution. Furthermore, the sample's surface can be probed over a wide analytical area range (usually between 1 µm2 and 104 µm2) providing insights into local variations in sample composition, as well as giving a general overview of the sample's structure. Finally, as long as the sample's surface is flat and conductive, no additional sample preparation is needed prior to TOF-SIMS measurements. Despite many advantages, TOF-SIMS analysis can be challenging, especially in the case of weakly ionizing elements. Furthermore, mass interference, different component polarity of complex samples, and matrix effect are the main drawbacks of this technique. This implies a strong need for developing new methods, which could help improve TOF-SIMS signal quality and facilitate data interpretation. In this review, we primarily focus on gas-assisted TOF-SIMS, which has proven to have potential for overcoming most of the aforementioned difficulties. In particular, the recently proposed use of XeF2 during sample bombardment with a Ga+ primary ion beam exhibits outstanding properties, which can lead to significant positive secondary ion yield enhancement, separation of mass interference, and inversion of secondary ion charge polarity from negative to positive. The implementation of the presented experimental protocols can be easily achieved by upgrading commonly used focused ion beam/scanning electron microscopes (FIB/SEM) with a high vacuum (HV)-compatible TOF-SIMS detector and a commercial gas injection system (GIS), making it an attractive solution for both academic centers and the industrial sectors.
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Priebe A, Aribia A, Sastre J, Romanyuk YE, Michler J. 3D High-Resolution Chemical Characterization of Sputtered Li-Rich NMC811 Thin Films Using TOF-SIMS. Anal Chem 2023; 95:1074-1084. [PMID: 36534635 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c03780] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Massive demand for Li-ion batteries stimulates the research of new materials such as high-capacity cathodes, metal anodes, and solid electrolytes, which should ultimately lead to new generations of batteries such as all-solid-state batteries. Such material discovery often requires knowledge on lithium's content and local distribution in complex Li-containing systems, which is a challenging analytical task. The state-of-the-art time-of-flight secondary-ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) is one of the few chemical analysis techniques allowing for parallel detection of all sample components and representing their distributions in 3D with nanoscale resolution. In this work, we explore the outstanding potential of TOF-SIMS for comprehensive chemical and nano-/micro-structural characterization of novel Li-rich nickel manganese cobalt oxide thin films, which are potential cathode materials for the future generation batteries. Off-stoichiometric thin films of Li- and Ni-rich layered oxide with the composition of LixNi0.8Mn0.1Co0.1O2 (LR-NMC811, x > 1) were deposited using reactive magnetron sputtering. Such thin films do not contain any conductive additives or binders and therefore serve as model 2D systems to investigate compositional fluctuations, surface and interface phenomena, and their aging. TOF-SIMS revealed the presence of 400 ± 100 nm overlithiated grains and 100 ± 30 nm nanoparticles with an increased 7Li16O+ ion content in the buried part of LR-NMC811. The Li-rich agglomerates could potentially serve as Li reservoirs for compensating Li losses during cathode fabrication and cell operation. Interestingly, these sub-micron structures decomposed in time upon exposure to ambient conditions for 30 days.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Priebe
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
| | - Abdessalem Aribia
- Laboratory for Thin Films and Photovoltaics, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Jordi Sastre
- Laboratory for Thin Films and Photovoltaics, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Yaroslav E Romanyuk
- Laboratory for Thin Films and Photovoltaics, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Johann Michler
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
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4
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Zhang Y, Kong C, Scardera G, Abbott M, Payne DNR, Hoex B. Large volume tomography using plasma FIB-SEM: A comprehensive case study on black silicon. Ultramicroscopy 2022; 233:113458. [PMID: 34929560 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2021.113458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2021] [Revised: 11/14/2021] [Accepted: 12/11/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
The xenon plasma focused ion beam and scanning electron microscopy (PFIB-SEM) system is a promising tool for 3D tomography of nano-scale materials, including nanotextured black silicon (BSi), whose topography is difficult to measure with conventional microscopy techniques. Advantages of PFIB-SEM include high material removal rates, precise control of milling parameters and automated slice-and-view procedures. However, there is no universal sample preparation procedure nor is there an established ideal workflow for the PFIB-SEM slice-and-view process. This work demonstrates that specimen preparation, including the orientation of the volume of interest, is critical for the quality of the final reconstructed 3D model. It thoroughly explores three unique configurations incrementally optimized for higher total throughput. All three sampling configurations are applied to a resin-embedded BSi sample to determine the most favourable workflow and highlight each approach's advantages and disadvantages. The reconstructed 3D models of the BSi surface obtained are shown to be qualitatively closer to the topography measured directly by SEM. The height distribution data extracted from the rendered 3D models reveal a higher structure depth compared to that obtained from an atomic force microscopy measurement. Furthermore, the work demonstrates how samples with different rigidity react to long-term ion-beam interaction, as both amorphous (resin) and crystalline (Si) material is present in the tested specimen. This study improves the understanding of sample-beam interaction and broadens the utility of the 3D PFIB-SEM for more complicated sample structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Zhang
- School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Charlie Kong
- Electron Microscope Unit, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Giuseppe Scardera
- School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - Malcolm Abbott
- School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
| | - David N R Payne
- School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia; School of Engineering, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW, 2109, Australia.
| | - Bram Hoex
- School of Photovoltaic and Renewable Energy Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, 2052, Australia
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Li D, Zhang T, Yue W, Gao P, Luo Y, Wang C, Luo X. Identification and classification of particle contaminants on photomasks based on individual-particle Raman scattering spectra and SEM images. RSC Adv 2022; 12:33349-33357. [DOI: 10.1039/d2ra05672k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Raman spectroscopy was used for the detection chemical composition of particle contamination on photomasks. Particle types and sources were identified and classified according to the Raman spectra of individual particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongxian Li
- State Key Laboratory of Optical Technologies on Nano-Fabrication and Micro-Engineering, Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 350, Chengdu 610209, China
- School of Optoelectronic Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, P.O. Box 350, Chengdu 610209, China
- School of Optoelectronics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Tao Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Optical Technologies on Nano-Fabrication and Micro-Engineering, Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 350, Chengdu 610209, China
| | - Weisheng Yue
- State Key Laboratory of Optical Technologies on Nano-Fabrication and Micro-Engineering, Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 350, Chengdu 610209, China
| | - Ping Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Optical Technologies on Nano-Fabrication and Micro-Engineering, Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 350, Chengdu 610209, China
| | - Yunfei Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Optical Technologies on Nano-Fabrication and Micro-Engineering, Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 350, Chengdu 610209, China
| | - Changtao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Optical Technologies on Nano-Fabrication and Micro-Engineering, Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 350, Chengdu 610209, China
| | - Xiangang Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Optical Technologies on Nano-Fabrication and Micro-Engineering, Institute of Optics and Electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 350, Chengdu 610209, China
- School of Optoelectronics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Priebe A, Sastre J, Futscher MH, Jurczyk J, Puydinger Dos Santos MV, Romanyuk YE, Michler J. Detection of Au + Ions During Fluorine Gas-Assisted Time-of-Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) for the Complete Elemental Characterization of Microbatteries. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:41262-41274. [PMID: 34470101 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c10352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Due to excellent electric conductivity and chemical inertness, Au can be used in new microdevices for energy applications, microelectronics, and biomedical solutions. However, the chemical analysis of Au-containing systems using time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) can be difficult because of the negative ionization of Au, as most metals form positive ions, and therefore cannot be detected from the same analytical volume. In this work, we present the potential of fluorine gas coinjection for altering the polarity, from the negative to positive, of Au secondary ions generated under Ga+ beam bombardment. The importance of detecting Au+ ions and representing their spatial distribution in nanoscale was demonstrated using a novel solid electrolyte for Li-ion solid-state batteries, amorphous Li7La3Zr2O12 (aLLZO). This allowed for assessing the migration of mobile Li+ ions outside the aLLZO layer and alloying the Au layer with Li, which explained the presence of an internal electric field observed during the polarization measurements. Remarkably, during fluorine gas-assisted TOF-SIMS measurements, the trace amount of Au content (5 ppm) was detected in a Pt layer (unattainable under standard vacuum conditions). In conclusion, fluorine gas-assisted TOF-SIMS can help understanding operation mechanisms and potential degradation processes of microdevices and therefore help optimizing their functionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Priebe
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, Thun CH-3602, Switzerland
| | - Jordi Sastre
- Laboratory for Thin Films and Photovoltaics, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf CH-8600 Switzerland
| | - Moritz H Futscher
- Laboratory for Thin Films and Photovoltaics, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf CH-8600 Switzerland
| | - Jakub Jurczyk
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, Thun CH-3602, Switzerland
- Faculty of Physics and Applied Computer Science, AGH University of Science and Technology Krakow, Al. Mickiewicza 30, 30-059 Kraków, Poland
| | - Marcos V Puydinger Dos Santos
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, Thun CH-3602, Switzerland
| | - Yaroslav E Romanyuk
- Laboratory for Thin Films and Photovoltaics, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf CH-8600 Switzerland
| | - Johann Michler
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, Thun CH-3602, Switzerland
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Priebe A, Huszar E, Nowicki M, Pethö L, Michler J. Mechanisms of Fluorine-Induced Separation of Mass Interference during TOF-SIMS Analysis. Anal Chem 2021; 93:10261-10271. [PMID: 34256561 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c01661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) is one of very few analytical techniques allowing sample chemical structure to be characterized in three-dimensional (3D) with nanometer resolution. Due to the excellent sensitivity in the order of ppm-ppb and capability of detecting all ionized elements and molecules, TOF-SIMS finds many applications for analyzing nanoparticle-containing systems and thin films used in microdevices for new energy applications, microelectronics, and biomedicine. However, one of the main drawbacks of this technique is potential mass interference between ions having the same or similar masses, which can lead to data misinterpretation. In this work, we present that this problem can be easily solved by delivering fluorine gas to a sample surface during TOF-SIMS analysis and we propose mechanisms driving this phenomenon. Our comprehensive studies, conducted on complex thin films made of highly mass-interfering elements, show that fluorine modifies the ionization process, leading to element-specific changes of ion yields (which can vary by several orders of magnitude), and affects the efficiency of metal hydride and oxide formation. In conjunction, these two effects can efficiently induce separation of mass interference, providing more representative TOF-SIMS data with respect to the sample composition and significant enhancement of chemical image resolution. Consequently, this can improve the chemical characterization of complex multilayers in nanoscale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Priebe
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
| | - Emese Huszar
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland.,Laboratory for Nanometallurgy, Department of Materials, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Marek Nowicki
- Center for Advanced Technology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 10, 61-614 Poznań, Poland.,Faculty of Materials Engineering and Technical Physics, Poznan University of Technology, 60-965 Poznań, Poland
| | - Laszlo Pethö
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
| | - Johann Michler
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
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Verkhoturov DS, Crulhas BP, Eller MJ, Han YD, Verkhoturov SV, Bisrat Y, Revzin A, Schweikert EA. Nanoprojectile Secondary Ion Mass Spectrometry for Analysis of Extracellular Vesicles. Anal Chem 2021; 93:7481-7490. [PMID: 33988360 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c00689] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
We describe a technique based on secondary ion mass spectrometry with nanoprojectiles (NP-SIMS) for determining the protein content of extracellular vesicles, EVs, via tagged antibodies. The technique uses individual gold nanoprojectiles (e.g., Au4004+ and Au28008+), separated in time and space, to bombard a surface. For each projectile impact (10-20 nm in diameter), the co-emitted molecules are mass analyzed and recorded as an individual mass spectrum. Examining these individual mass spectra for co-localized species allows for nanoscale mass spectrometry to be performed. The high lateral resolution of this technique is well suited for analyzing nano-objects. SIMS is generally limited to analyzing small molecules (below ∼1500 Da); therefore, we evaluated three molecules (eosin, erythrosine, and BHHTEGST) as prospective mass spectrometry tags. We tested these on a model surface comprising a mixture of all three tags conjugated to antibodies and found that NP-SIMS could detect all three tags from a single projectile impact. Applying the method, we tagged two surface proteins common in urinary EVs, CD63 and CD81, with anti-CD63-erythrosine and anti-CD81-BHHTEGST. We found that NP-SIMS could determine the relative abundance of the two proteins and required only a few hundred or thousand EVs in the analysis region to detect the presence of the tagged antibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dmitriy S Verkhoturov
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Bruno P Crulhas
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st Street SW St-11-14, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, United States
| | - Michael J Eller
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, California State University Northridge, Northridge, California 91330, United States
| | - Yong D Han
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st Street SW St-11-14, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, United States
| | | | - Yordanos Bisrat
- Materials Characterization Facility, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Alexander Revzin
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic, 200 1st Street SW St-11-14, Rochester, Minnesota 55905, United States
| | - Emile A Schweikert
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
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Priebe A, Pethö L, Huszar E, Xie T, Utke I, Michler J. High Sensitivity of Fluorine Gas-Assisted FIB-TOF-SIMS for Chemical Characterization of Buried Sublayers in Thin Films. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:15890-15900. [PMID: 33769781 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c01627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we present the potential of high vacuum-compatible time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (TOF-SIMS) detectors, which can be integrated within focused ion beam (FIB) instruments for precise and fast chemical characterization of thin films buried deep under the sample surface. This is demonstrated on complex multilayer systems composed of alternating ceramic and metallic layers with thicknesses varying from several nanometers to hundreds of nanometers. The typical problems of the TOF-SIMS technique, that is, low secondary ion signals and mass interference between ions having similar masses, were solved using a novel approach of co-injecting fluorine gas during the sample surface sputtering. In the most extreme case of the Al/Al2O3/Al/Al2O3/.../Al sample, a <10 nm thick Al2O3 thin film buried under a 0.5 μm material was detected and spatially resolved using only 27Al+ signal distribution. This is an impressive achievement taking into account that Al and Al2O3 layers varied only by a small amount of oxygen content. Due to its high sensitivity, fluorine gas-assisted FIB-TOF-SIMS can be used for quality control of nano- and microdevices as well as for the failure analysis of fabrication processes. Therefore, it is expected to play an important role in the development of microelectronics and thin-film-based devices for energy applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Priebe
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
| | - Laszlo Pethö
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
| | - Emese Huszar
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
- Laboratory for Nanometallurgy, Department of Materials, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 5, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Tianle Xie
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
- College of Material Science and Engineering, Hunan University, 2 Lushan S Rd, Yuelu, 410082 Changsha, P.R. China
| | - Ivo Utke
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
| | - Johann Michler
- Laboratory for Mechanics of Materials and Nanostructures, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Feuerwerkerstrasse 39, CH-3602 Thun, Switzerland
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