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Grasselli G, Arigò A, Palma P, Famiglini G, Cappiello A. Latest Developments in Direct and Non-Direct LC-MS Methods Based on Liquid Electron Ionization (LEI). Crit Rev Anal Chem 2024:1-18. [PMID: 39046707 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2024.2381543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry (MS) enables precise identification and quantification of molecules, particularly when combined with chromatography. The advent of atmospheric pressure ionization (API) techniques allowed the efficient coupling of liquid chromatography with MS (LC-MS), extending analyses to nonvolatile and thermolabile compounds. API techniques present limitations such as low informative capacity and reproducibility of mass spectra, increasing instrument complexity and costs. Other challenges include analyzing poorly polar molecules and matrix effects (ME), which negatively impact quantitative analyses, necessitating extensive sample purification or using expensive labeled standards. These limitations prompted the exploration of alternative solutions, leading to the development of the Liquid Electron Ionization (LEI) interface. The system has demonstrated excellent robustness and reproducibility. LEI has been employed to analyze various compounds, including pesticides, drugs of abuse, phenols, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), phthalates, and many others. Its versatility has been validated with single quadrupole, triple quadrupole, and QToF detectors, operating in electron ionization (EI) or chemical ionization (CI) modes and with both reverse phase liquid chromatography (RPLC) and normal phase liquid chromatography (NPLC). LEI has also been successfully integrated with the Microfluidic Open Interface (MOI), Membrane Introduction Mass Spectrometry (MIMS), and Microfluidic Water-Assisted Trap Focusing (M-WATF), broadening its application scope and consistently demonstrating promising results in terms of sensitivity and identification power. The most recent advancement is the development of Extractive-Liquid Sampling Electron Ionization-Mass Spectrometry (E-LEI-MS), a surface sampling and real-time analysis technique based on the LEI concept. This review article offers a comprehensive and up-to-date picture of the potential of LEI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Genny Grasselli
- Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Urbino, Italy
| | - Adriana Arigò
- Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Urbino, Italy
| | - Pierangela Palma
- Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Urbino, Italy
| | - Giorgio Famiglini
- Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Urbino, Italy
| | - Achille Cappiello
- Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Urbino, Italy
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Dutt M, Arigò A, Famiglini G, Zappia G, Palma P, Cappiello A. Exploring Negative Chemical Ionization of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances via a Liquid Electron Ionization LC-MS Interface. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2024; 35:890-901. [PMID: 38587900 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.3c00432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/10/2024]
Abstract
Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) are a class of aliphatic manufactured compounds comprising fluoro-chemicals with varied functional groups and stable carbon-fluorine bonds. They are defined as "forever chemicals" due to their persistent and bioaccumulative character. These substances have been detected in various environmental samples, including water, air, soil, and human blood, posing significant health hazards. High-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (HPLC-ESI-MS) is typically employed for the analysis of PFASs. Negative chemical ionization (NCI) is generally coupled to gas chromatography (GC) and offers high selectivity and sensitivity for compounds containing electronegative atoms, such as PFASs. The liquid electron ionization (LEI) interface is an efficient mechanism developed to robustly couple a liquid flow rate from an LC system to an EI or a CI source. This interface has been successfully utilized for pesticide determination in UHPLC-LEI-CI in negative ion mode (NCI). This work aims to evaluate different parameters involved in the ionization of PFASs analyzed in LC-LEI-NCI and subsequently develop a method for their detection in real samples. The parameters considered for this study include (i) a comparison of different CI reagent gases (methane, isobutane, and argon); (ii) the use of acetonitrile as both the chromatographic solvent and CI reagent gas; (iii) the presence of water and formic acid as chromatographic mobile phase components; and (iv) the mobile phase flow rate. The optimal combination of these parameters led to promising results. Tentative fragmentation pathways of PFASs in NCI mode are proposed based on the dissociative electron capture mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malvika Dutt
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Adriana Arigò
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Giorgio Famiglini
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Giovanni Zappia
- San Raffaele University of Rome, via di Val Cannuta, 247 00166 Rome, Italy
- UMOLSYSTEM Srl, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Pierangela Palma
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada
| | - Achille Cappiello
- DiSPeA Department, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, Piazza Rinascimento, 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
- Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada
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3
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King L, Aplin R, Gill C, Naimi T. A State-of-the-Science Review of Alcoholic Beverages and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2024; 132:16001. [PMID: 38241192 PMCID: PMC10798427 DOI: 10.1289/ehp13506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2023] [Revised: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The association between alcohol and certain cancers is well established, yet beyond ethanol and its metabolite acetaldehyde, little is known about the presence of other carcinogenic compounds in alcoholic beverages, including polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), such as benzo[a]pyrene (a Group I carcinogen). OBJECTIVES We summarized the published literature on PAH levels in alcoholic beverages to identify potential gaps in knowledge to inform future research. METHODS Medline and Scopus were searched for primary research published from January 1966 to November 2023 that quantified PAH levels among various types of alcoholic beverages, including whisky, rum, brandy, gin, vodka, wine, and beer. Studies that were not primary literature were excluded; only studies that quantified PAH content in the specified alcoholic beverages were included. RESULTS Ten studies published from 1966 to 2019 met the criteria for review. Other than beverage type, no publication reported selection criteria for their samples of tested alcohol products. Studies used a variety of analytical methods to detect PAHs. Of the 10 studies, 7 were published after 2000, and 6 assessed < 20 products. Of the studies, 7 examined spirits; 3, beer; and 4, wines. Benzo[a]pyrene was most prevalent among spirit products, particularly whisky, with values generally exceeding acceptable levels for drinking water. Some beer and wine products also contained PAHs, albeit at lower levels and less frequently than spirit products. DISCUSSION PAHs are found in some alcohol products and appear to vary by beverage type. However, there is an incomplete understanding of their presence and levels among large, representative samples from the range of currently available alcohol products. Addressing this gap could improve understanding of alcohol-cancer relationships and may have important implications for public health and the regulation of alcohol products. In addition, novel methods, such as direct mass spectroscopy, may facilitate more thorough testing of samples to further investigate this relationship. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP13506.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liam King
- University of British Columbia, Faculty of Medicine, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Rebekah Aplin
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Chris Gill
- Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Timothy Naimi
- University of British Columbia, Faculty of Medicine, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada
- Canadian Institute for Substance Use Research, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
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Monaghan J, Jaeger A, Jai JK, Tomlin H, Atkinson J, Brown TM, Gill CG, Krogh ET. Automated, High-Throughput Analysis of Tire-Derived p-Phenylenediamine Quinones (PPDQs) in Water by Online Membrane Sampling Coupled to MS/MS. ACS ES&T WATER 2023; 3:3293-3304. [PMID: 38455156 PMCID: PMC10916759 DOI: 10.1021/acsestwater.3c00275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 08/24/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2024]
Abstract
The tire-derived contaminant N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine quinone (6-PPDQ) was recently identified as a potent toxin to coho salmon (Oncorhynchus kisutch). Studies investigating 6-PPDQ have employed solid-phase extraction (SPE) or liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) with liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS), providing excellent sensitivity and selectivity. However, cleanup and pre-enrichment steps (SPE/LLE) followed by chromatographic separation can be time- and cost-intensive, limiting sample throughput. The ubiquitous distribution of 6-PPDQ necessitates numerous measurements to identify hotspots for targeted mitigation. We recently developed condensed phase membrane introduction mass spectrometry (CP-MIMS) for rapid 6-PPDQ analysis (2.5 min/sample), with a simple workflow and low limit of detection (8 ng/L). Here, we describe improved quantitation using isotopically labeled internal standards and inclusion of a suite of PPDQ analogues. A low-cost autosampler and data processing software were developed from a three-dimensional (3D) printer and Matlab to fully realize the high-throughput capabilities of CP-MIMS. Cross-validation with a commercial LC-MS method for 10 surface waters provides excellent agreement (slope: 1.01; R2 = 0.992). We employ this analytical approach to probe fundamental questions regarding sample stability and sorption of 6-PPDQ under lab-controlled conditions. Further, the results for 192 surface water samples provide the first spatiotemporal characterization of PPDQs on Vancouver Island and the lower mainland of British Columbia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Monaghan
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 3055, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8P 5C2
| | - Angelina Jaeger
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
| | - Joshua K. Jai
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
| | - Haley Tomlin
- British
Columbia Conservation Foundation, 1885 Boxwood Road #105, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9S 5X9
| | - Jamieson Atkinson
- British
Columbia Conservation Foundation, 1885 Boxwood Road #105, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9S 5X9
| | - Tanya M. Brown
- Pacific
Science Enterprise Centre, Fisheries and
Oceans Canada, 4160 Marine Drive, West Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada V7V 1H2
- School
of Resources and Environmental Management, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive West, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5A 1S6
| | - Chris G. Gill
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 3055, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8P 5C2
- Department
of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5A 1S6
- Department
of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, 1959 NE Pacific Street, Seattle, Washington 98195-1618, United States
| | - Erik T. Krogh
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 3055, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8P 5C2
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Yu Y, Jiang J, Hua L, Xu Y, Chen C, Chen Y, Li H. Manipulation of Ion Conversion in Dichloromethane-Enhanced Vacuum Ultraviolet Photoionization Mass Spectrometry of Oxygenated Volatile Organic Compounds. Anal Chem 2023; 95:12940-12947. [PMID: 37582208 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c02644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/17/2023]
Abstract
The ion conversion processes in CH2Cl2-enhanced vacuum ultraviolet photoionization of oxygenated volatile organic compounds (OVOCs) have been systematically studied by regulating the pressure, humidity, and reaction time in the ionization source of a time-of-flight mass spectrometer. As the ionization source pressure increased from 100 to 1100 Pa, the main characteristic ions changed from CH2Cl+ to CH2Cl+(H2O), CH2OH+, and C2H4OH+ and then to the hydrated hydronium ions H3O+(H2O)n (n = 1, 2, 3). The total ion current (TIC) almost remained unchanged even if the humidity increased from 44 to 3120 ppmv, indicating interconversion between ions through ion-molecule reactions. The intensity of protonated methanol/ethanol (sample S) ion was almost linearly correlated with the intensity of H3O+(H2O)n, which pointed to the proton transfer reaction (PTR) mechanism. The reaction time was regulated by the electric field strength in the ionization region. The intensity variation trends of different ions with the reaction time indicated that a series of step-by-step ion-molecule reactions occurred in the ionization source, i.e., the primary ion CH2Cl+ reacted with H2O and converted to the intermediate product ions CH2OH+ and C2H4OH+, which then further reacted with H2O and led to the production of H3O+, and finally, the protonated sample ion SH+ was obtained through PTR with H3O+, as the ion-molecule reactions progressed. This study provides valuable insights into understanding the formation mechanism of some unexpected intermediate product ions and hydrated hydronium ions in dopant-enhanced VUV photoionization and also helps to optimize experimental conditions to enhance the sensitivity of OVOCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
- Liaoning Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry Technology and Instrumentation, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
| | - Jichun Jiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
- Liaoning Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry Technology and Instrumentation, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Hua
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
- Liaoning Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry Technology and Instrumentation, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
| | - Yiqian Xu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
- Liaoning Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry Technology and Instrumentation, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
| | - Chuang Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
- Liaoning Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry Technology and Instrumentation, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
| | - Yi Chen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, People's Republic of China
- Liaoning Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry Technology and Instrumentation, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
| | - Haiyang Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
- Liaoning Key Laboratory for Mass Spectrometry Technology and Instrumentation, Dalian 116023, People's Republic of China
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Zarkovic TM, Borden SA, Krogh ET, Gill CG. A passive membrane system for on-line mass spectrometry reagent addition. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2023; 37:e9487. [PMID: 36739105 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.9487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 01/25/2023] [Accepted: 02/01/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Post-separation addition of chemical modifiers in liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry is widely used for improving ionization sensitivity and selectivity. This is typically accomplished using a post-column T-junction, which can result in sample dilution and imperfect mixing. We present a passive semi-permeable hollow fiber membrane approach for the addition of chemical modifiers that avoids these issues. METHODS Model compounds were directly infused by flow injection to an electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometer after passing through a polydimethylsiloxane hollow fiber membrane. Ionization enhancement reagents were introduced into the flowing stream by membrane permeation from aqueous solutions. Ionization enhancement from volatile acids and bases in positive and negative electrospray ionization was evaluated to assess the feasibility of this approach. RESULTS The membrane-based apparatus resulted in relative ionization enhancement factors of up to 14×, depending upon the analyte, reagent, and ionization mode used. Ionization enhancement signal stability is reasonable (relative standard deviation of 5-7%) for extended periods from the same reagent solution, and minimal analyte dilution is observed. A proof-of-concept demonstration of the chromatographic "trifluoroacetic acid fix" strategy is presented. CONCLUSIONS An on-line mass spectrometry ionization reagent addition method with potential post-chromatography reagent addition applications was developed using a hollow fiber polydimethylsiloxane membrane. This approach offers a promising alternative to traditional methods requiring additional hardware such as pumps and T-junctions that can result in sample dilution and imperfect reagent mixing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taelor M Zarkovic
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Scott A Borden
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Erik T Krogh
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
| | - Chris G Gill
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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Monaghan J, Steenis D, Vander Meulen IJ, Peru KM, Headley JV, Gill CG, Krogh ET. Online Membrane Sampling for the Mass Spectrometric Analysis of Oil Sands Process Affected Water-Derived Naphthenic Acids in Real-World Samples. SEPARATIONS 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/separations10040228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Large volumes of oil sands process-affected waters (OSPW) result from heavy oil extraction in Alberta, Canada. Currently, a toxic legacy of ca. 500 Mm3 is stored in tailings ponds under a zero-discharge policy. OSPW is a complex mixture of suspended and dissolved materials including a wide range of inorganic and organic contaminants. Classically defined naphthenic acids (NAs; CnH2n+ZO2) are one of the primary toxic fractions in OSPW and have therefore been the subject of considerable research interest. Most studies employ considerable sample cleanup followed by liquid chromatography and/or high-resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) for the characterization of these complex mixtures. However, these strategies can be time- and cost-intensive, limiting the scope of research and adoption for regulatory purposes. Condensed phase membrane introduction mass spectrometry (CP-MIMS) is emerging as a “fit-for-purpose” approach for the analysis of NAs. This technique directly interfaces the mass spectrometer with an aqueous sample using a hydrophobic semi-permeable membrane, requiring only pH adjustment to convert NAs to a membrane-permeable form. Here, we examine the perm-selectivity of classical NAs (O2) relative to their more oxidized counterparts (O3–O7) and heteroatomic (N, S) species collectively termed naphthenic acid fraction compounds (NAFCs). The investigation of 14 model compounds revealed that classically defined NAs are greater than 50-fold more membrane permeable than their oxidized/heteroatomic analogs. HRMS analysis of real OSPW extracts with and without membrane clean-up further supported selectivity towards the toxic O2 class of NAs, with >85% of the overall signal intensity attributable to O2 NAs in the membrane permeate despite as little as 34.7 ± 0.6% O2 NAs observed in the directly infused mixture. The information collected with HRMS is leveraged to refine our method for analysis of NAs at unit mass resolution. This new method is applied to 28 archived real-world samples containing NAs/NAFCs from constructed wetlands, OSPW, and environmental monitoring campaigns. Concentrations ranged from 0–25 mg/L O2 NAs and the results measured by CP-MIMS (unit mass) and SPE-HRMS (Orbitrap) showed good agreement (slope = 0.80; R2 = 0.76).
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Condensed Phase Membrane Introduction Mass Spectrometry: A Direct Alternative to Fully Exploit the Mass Spectrometry Potential in Environmental Sample Analysis. SEPARATIONS 2023. [DOI: 10.3390/separations10020139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Membrane introduction mass spectrometry (MIMS) is a direct mass spectrometry technique used to monitor online chemical systems or quickly quantify trace levels of different groups of compounds in complex matrices without extensive sample preparation steps and chromatographic separation. MIMS utilizes a thin, semi-permeable, and selective membrane that directly connects the sample and the mass spectrometer. The analytes in the sample are pre-concentrated by the membrane depending on their physicochemical properties and directly transferred, using different acceptor phases (gas, liquid or vacuum) to the mass spectrometer. Condensed phase (CP) MIMS use a liquid as a medium, extending the range to new applications to less-volatile compounds that are challenging or unsuitable to gas-phase MIMS. It directly allows the rapid quantification of selected compounds in complex matrices, the online monitoring of chemical reactions (in real-time), as well as in situ measurements. CP-MIMS has expanded beyond the measurement of several organic compounds because of the use of different types of liquid acceptor phases, geometries, dimensions, and mass spectrometers. This review surveys advancements of CP-MIMS and its applications to several molecules and matrices over the past 15 years.
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María Casas-Ferreira A, del Nogal Sánchez M, Rodríguez-Gonzalo E, Pérez Pavón JL. Non-separative determination of isomeric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons by electrospray Ag(I) cationization mass spectrometry and multivariate calibration. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.108072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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10
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Monaghan J, Xin Q, Aplin R, Jaeger A, Heshka NE, Hounjet LJ, Gill CG, Krogh ET. Aqueous naphthenic acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in a meso-scale spill tank affected by diluted bitumen analyzed directly by membrane introduction mass spectrometry. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 440:129798. [PMID: 36027751 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129798] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
With the increasing use of unconventional, heavy crude oils there is growing interest in potential impacts of a diluted bitumen (DB) spill in marine and freshwater environments. DB has the potential to release several toxic, trace organic contaminants to the water column. Here, the aqueous concentrations and compositions of two classes of organic contaminants, naphthenic acids (NAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), are followed over 8 weeks after a simulated spill of DB (10 L) into a freshwater mesocosm (1200 L) with river sediment (2.4 kg). These complex samples contain biogenic dissolved organic matter, inorganic ions, petroleum contaminants, suspended sediments, and oil droplets. We report the first use of condensed phase membrane introduction mass spectrometry (CP-MIMS) as a direct sampling platform in a complex multi-phase mesocosm spill tank study to measure trace aqueous phase contaminants with little to no sample preparation (dilution and/or pH adjustment). CP-MIMS provides complementary strengths to conventional analytical approaches (e.g., gas- or liquid chromatography mass spectrometry) by allowing the entire sample series to be screened quickly. Trace NAs are measured as carboxylates ([M-H]-) using electrospray ionization and PAHs are detected as radical cations (M+•) using liquid electron ionization coupled to a triple quadrupole mass spectrometer. The DB-affected mesocosm exhibits NA concentrations from 0.3 to 1.2 mg/L, which rise quickly over the first 2 - 5 days , then decrease slowly over the remainder of the study period. The NA profile (measured as the full scan in negative-electrospray ionization at nominal mass resolution) shifts to lower m/z with weathering, a process followed by principal component analysis of the normalized mass spectra. We couple CP-MIMS with high-resolution mass spectrometry to follow changes in molecular speciation over time, which reveals a concomitant shift from classical 'O2' naphthenic acids to more oxidized analogues. Concentrations of PAHs and alkylated analogues (C1 - C4) in the DB-affected water range from 0 to 5 μg/L. Changes in PAH concentrations depend on ring number and degree of alkylation, with small and/or lightly alkylated (C0 - C2) PAH concentrations rising to a maximum in the first 4 - 8 days (100 - 200 h) before slowly decaying over the remainder of the study period. Larger and heavily alkylated (C3 - C4) PAH concentrations generally rise slower, with some species remaining below the detection limit throughout the study period (e.g., C20H12 class including benzo[a]pyrene). In contrast, a control mesocosm (without oil) exhibited NA concentrations below 0.05 mg/L and PAHs were below detection limit. Capitalizing on the rapid analytical workflow of CP-MIMS, we also investigate the impacts of sample filtration at the time of sampling (on NA and PAH data) and sample storage time (on NA data only).
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Monaghan
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, PO Box 3055, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Qin Xin
- Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY Devon, 1 Oil Patch Drive, Devon, AB T9G 1A8, Canada.
| | - Rebekah Aplin
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada
| | - Angelina Jaeger
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada
| | - Nicole E Heshka
- Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY Devon, 1 Oil Patch Drive, Devon, AB T9G 1A8, Canada
| | - Lindsay J Hounjet
- Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY Devon, 1 Oil Patch Drive, Devon, AB T9G 1A8, Canada
| | - Chris G Gill
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, PO Box 3055, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1618, USA
| | - Erik T Krogh
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, BC V9R 5S5, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, PO Box 3055, Victoria, BC V8P 5C2, Canada.
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11
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Convenient synthesis of a hyper-cross-linked polymer via knitting strategy for high-performance solid phase microextraction of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. Microchem J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.microc.2022.107535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Duncan KD, Hawkes JA, Berg M, Clarijs B, Gill CG, Bergquist J, Lanekoff I, Krogh ET. Membrane Sampling Separates Naphthenic Acids from Biogenic Dissolved Organic Matter for Direct Analysis by Mass Spectrometry. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:3096-3105. [PMID: 35175743 PMCID: PMC8892831 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c07359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/08/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Oil sands process waters can release toxic naphthenic acids (NAs) into aquatic environments. Analytical techniques for NAs are challenged by sample complexity and interference from naturally occurring dissolved organic matter (DOM). Herein, we report the use of a poly(dimethylsiloxane) (PDMS) polymer membrane for the on-line separation of NAs from DOM and use direct infusion electrospray ionization mass spectrometry to yield meaningful qualitative and quantitative information with minimal sample cleanup. We compare the composition of membrane-permeable species from natural waters fortified with a commercial NA mixture to those derived from weak anion exchange solid-phase extraction (SPE) using high-resolution mass spectrometry. The results show that SPE retains a wide range of carboxylic acids, including biogenic DOM, while permeation through PDMS was selective for petrogenic classically defined NAs (CnH2n+zO2). A series of model compounds (log Kow ∼1-7) were used to characterize the perm-selectivity and reveal the separation is based on hydrophobicity. This convenient sample cleanup method is selective for the O2 class of NAs and can be used prior to conventional analysis or as an on-line analytical strategy when coupled directly to mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle D. Duncan
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
- Department
of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
| | - Jeffrey A. Hawkes
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mykelti Berg
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
| | - Bas Clarijs
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Chris G. Gill
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 1700, Stn CSC, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8W 2Y2
- Department
of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Jonas Bergquist
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Ingela Lanekoff
- Analytical
Chemistry, Department of Chemistry − BMC, Uppsala University, Husargatan 3, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Erik T. Krogh
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 1700, Stn CSC, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8W 2Y2
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13
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Cappiello A, Termopoli V, Palma P, Famiglini G, Saeed M, Perry S, Navarro P. Liquid Chromatography-Electron Capture Negative Ionization-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Detection of Pesticides in a Commercial Formulation. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2022; 33:141-148. [PMID: 34898195 PMCID: PMC8739837 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.1c00307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2021] [Revised: 11/24/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Negative chemical ionization (NCI) and electron-capture negative ionization (ECNI) are gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) techniques that generate negative ions in the gas phase for compounds containing electronegative atoms or functional groups. In ECNI, gas-phase thermal electrons can be transferred to electrophilic substances to produce M-• ions and scarce fragmentation. As a result of the electrophilicity requirements, ECNI is characterized by high-specificity and low background noise, generally lower than EI, offering lower detection limits. The aim of this work is to explore the possibility of extending typical advantages of ECNI to liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). The LC is combined with the novel liquid-EI (LEI) LC-EIMS interface, the eluent is vaporized and transferred inside a CI source, where it is mixed with methane as a buffer gas. As proof of concept, dicamba and tefluthrin, agrochemicals with herbicidal and insecticidal activity, respectively, were chosen as model compounds and detected together in a commercial formulation. The pesticides have different chemical properties, but both are suitable analytes for ECNI due to the presence of electronegative atoms in the molecules. The influence of the mobile phase and other LC- and MS-operative parameters were methodically evaluated. Part-per-trillion (ppt) detection limits were obtained. Ion abundances were found to be stable with quantitative linear detection, reliable, and reproducible, with no influence from coeluting interfering compounds from the sample matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Achille Cappiello
- University
of Urbino, Department of Pure
and Applied Sciences, LC−MS Laboratory, Piazza Rinascimento 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
- Department
of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, Canada V9R 5S5
| | - Veronica Termopoli
- University
of Urbino, Department of Pure
and Applied Sciences, LC−MS Laboratory, Piazza Rinascimento 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Pierangela Palma
- University
of Urbino, Department of Pure
and Applied Sciences, LC−MS Laboratory, Piazza Rinascimento 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
- Department
of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, Canada V9R 5S5
| | - Giorgio Famiglini
- University
of Urbino, Department of Pure
and Applied Sciences, LC−MS Laboratory, Piazza Rinascimento 6, 61029 Urbino, Italy
| | - Mansoor Saeed
- Jealott’s
Hill International Research Centre, Syngenta, Bracknell, Berkshire RG42 6EY, U.K.
| | - Simon Perry
- Jealott’s
Hill International Research Centre, Syngenta, Bracknell, Berkshire RG42 6EY, U.K.
| | - Pablo Navarro
- Jealott’s
Hill International Research Centre, Syngenta, Bracknell, Berkshire RG42 6EY, U.K.
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14
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Monaghan J, Jaeger A, Agua AR, Stanton RS, Pirrung M, Gill CG, Krogh ET. A Direct Mass Spectrometry Method for the Rapid Analysis of Ubiquitous Tire-Derived Toxin N-(1,3-Dimethylbutyl)- N'-phenyl- p-phenylenediamine Quinone (6-PPDQ). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2021; 8:1051-1056. [PMID: 38433861 PMCID: PMC10906944 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
The oxidative transformation product of a common tire preservative, identified as N-(1,3-dimethylbutyl)-N'-phenyl-p-phenylenediamine quinone (6-PPDQ), has recently been found to contribute to "urban runoff mortality syndrome" in Coho salmon at nanogram per liter levels. Given the number of fish-bearing streams with multiple stormwater inputs, large-scale campaigns to identify 6-PPDQ sources and evaluate mitigation strategies will require sensitive, high-throughput analytical methods. We report the development and optimization of a direct sampling tandem mass spectrometry method for semiquantitative 6-PPDQ determinations using a thin polydimethylsiloxane membrane immersion probe. The method requires no sample cleanup steps or chromatographic separations, even in complex, heterogeneous samples. Quantitation is achieved by the method of standard additions, with a detection limit of 8 ng/L and a duty cycle of 15 min/sample. High-throughput screening provides semiquantitative concentrations with similar sensitivity and a full analytical duty cycle of 2.5 min/sample. Preliminary data and performance metrics are reported for 6-PPDQ present in representative environmental and stormwater samples. The method is readily adapted for real-time process monitoring, demonstrated by following the dissolution of 6-PPDQ from tire fragments and subsequent removal in response to added sorbents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Monaghan
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 3055, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8P 5C2
| | - Angelina Jaeger
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
| | - Alon R. Agua
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Ryan S. Stanton
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Michael Pirrung
- Department
of Chemistry, University of California, Riverside, California 92521, United States
| | - Chris G. Gill
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 3055, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8P 5C2
- Department
of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6
- Department
of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195-1618, United States
| | - Erik T. Krogh
- Applied
Environmental Research Laboratories, Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada V9R 5S5
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Victoria, P.O. Box 3055, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada V8P 5C2
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15
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Zhang GL, Zhang M, Shi Q, Jiang Z, Tong L, Chen Z, Tang B. In Situ Construction of COF-Based Paper Serving as a Plasmonic Substrate for Enhanced PSI-MS Detection of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:43438-43448. [PMID: 34465082 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c13860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Accurate detection, quantitation, and differentiation of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and their isomers in diverse samples is elusive for paper spray ionization mass spectrometry (PSI-MS). To address these issues, herein, for the first time, we propose to fabricate a novel, flexible, and stable paper substrate based on covalent organic frameworks (COFs) via an in situ method under room temperature in air. After embedding gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), this paper substrate (COFs-paper) could further serve as a multifunctional plasmonic matrix (AuNPs-COFs-paper) for dual-wavelength laser-assisted PSI-MS detection of PAHs and feasible paper surface-enhanced Raman scattering (pSERS)-aided isomer discrimination. Taking advantage of the synergistic effect between the AuNPs and COFs present on the novel AuNP-embedded COFs-paper substrate, a satisfied LOD of 0.50 ng/μL for phenanthrene was realized, which improved almost 300 times compared with the naked-paper matrix, and the regression coefficient R2 was up to 0.999. Real sample corn oil-containing PAHs can be efficiently detected and identified using this technique. The established platform has promising potential for on-site chemical analysis with portable PSI-MS and pSERS instruments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guang-Lu Zhang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China
| | - Minmin Zhang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China
| | - Qian Shi
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China
| | - Zhongyao Jiang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China
| | - Lili Tong
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China
| | - Zhenzhen Chen
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China
| | - Bo Tang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Collaborative Innovation Center of Functionalized Probes for Chemical Imaging in Universities of Shandong, Key Laboratory of Molecular and Nano Probes, Ministry of Education, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, P. R. China
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16
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Monaghan J, Richards LC, Vandergrift GW, Hounjet LJ, Stoyanov SR, Gill CG, Krogh ET. Direct mass spectrometric analysis of naphthenic acids and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in waters impacted by diluted bitumen and conventional crude oil. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 765:144206. [PMID: 33418326 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/27/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Crude oil spills have well-documented, deleterious impacts on the hydrosphere. In addition to macroscopic effects on wildlife and waterscapes, several classes of petroleum derived compounds, such as naphthenic acids (NAs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), may be released into the water and present aquatic contamination hazards. The concentrations of these contaminants may be affected by both oil type and water chemistry. We characterize the concentrations of NAs and PAHs in natural and constructed waters, spanning a range of pH and salinity, and directly compare the influence of diluted bitumen (DB) and conventional crude (CC) oil, using condensed-phase membrane introduction mass spectrometry (CP-MIMS) as a direct sampling, on-line technique. The concentration and isomer class profiles of classical NAs in the aqueous phase were assessed using electrospray ionization in negative-ion mode as [M-H]- whereas PAH concentrations were monitored using liquid electron ionization (LEI) in positive-ion mode as [M+•]. NA concentrations (0.03-25 ppm) were highly pH-dependent, and an order of magnitude greater in water samples contaminated with DB than CC. Conversely, concentrations of naphthalene (10-130 ppb) and alkyl-naphthalenes (10-90 ppb) were three to four-fold higher in water samples exposed to CC. We demonstrate that naturally occurring dissolved organic matter does not bias results from the membrane sampling approach employed, and that DB and CC contaminated waters can be differentiated using principal component analysis of the NA isomer class distribution in both constructed and natural waters. Finally, we describe the first demonstration of the concurrent analysis of trace NAs and PAHs in the same water sample by controlling perm-selectivity at the membrane and the ionization mode of the mass spectrometer. The techniques employed here for trace analysis of petroleum derived compounds in water can be applied to rapid screening and real-time monitoring of contamination and remediation processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph Monaghan
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia V9R 5S5, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, PO Box 1700 Stn CSC, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Larissa C Richards
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia V9R 5S5, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, PO Box 1700 Stn CSC, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Gregory W Vandergrift
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia V9R 5S5, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, PO Box 1700 Stn CSC, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 2Y2, Canada
| | - Lindsay J Hounjet
- Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY Devon, 1 Oil Patch Drive, Devon, Alberta T9G 1A8, Canada.
| | - Stanislav R Stoyanov
- Natural Resources Canada, CanmetENERGY Devon, 1 Oil Patch Drive, Devon, Alberta T9G 1A8, Canada
| | - Chris G Gill
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia V9R 5S5, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, PO Box 1700 Stn CSC, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 2Y2, Canada; Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Erik T Krogh
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, 900 Fifth Street, Nanaimo, British Columbia V9R 5S5, Canada; Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, PO Box 1700 Stn CSC, Victoria, British Columbia V8W 2Y2, Canada.
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