Hybrid Antibody-Aptamer Assay for Detection of Tetrodotoxin in Pufferfish

A smartphone-based fluorescent biosensor with metal-organic framework biocomposites and cotton swabs for the rapid determination of tetrodotoxin in seafood

BACKGROUND

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a potent neurovirulent marine biotoxin that is present in puffer fish and certain marine animals. It is capable of causing severe neurotoxic symptoms and even death when consumed through contaminated seafood. Due to its high toxicity, developing an effective assay for TTX determination in seafood has significant benefits for food safety and human health. Currently, it remains challenging to achieve on-site determination of TTX in seafood. To facilitate mass on-site assays, more affordable technologies utilizing accessible equipment that require no skilled personnel are needed.

RESULTS

A smartphone-based portable fluorescent biosensor is proposed for TTX determination by using metal-organic framework (MOF) biocomposites and cotton swabs. Oriented antibody (Ab)-decorated and fluorescent quantum dot (QD)-loaded MOF biocomposites (QD@MOF*Ab) are rapidly synthesized for binding targets and fluorescent responses by utilizing the tunability of zinc-based MOF. Moreover, facile Ab-immobilized household cotton swabs are utilized as TTX capture tools. TTX forms sandwich immune complexes with QD@MOF*Ab probes, achieving signal amplification. These probes are excited by a portable device to generate bright fluorescent signals, which can be detected by the naked eye, and TTX quantitative results are obtained using a smartphone. When observed with the naked eye, the limit of detection (LOD) is 0.4 ng/mL, while intelligent quantitation presents an LOD of 0.13 ng/mL at logarithmic concentrations of 0.2-400 ng/mL.

SIGNIFICANCE

This biosensor is convenient to use, and an easy-to-operate analysis is completed within 15 min, thus demonstrating excellent performance in terms of detection speed and portability. Furthermore, it successfully determines TTX contents in puffer fish and clam samples, demonstrating its potential for monitoring seafood. Herein, this work provides a favorable rapid sensing platform that is easily portable.

CRISPR/Cas12a integrated electrochemiluminescence biosensor for pufferfish authenticity detection based on NiCo2O4 NCs@Au as a coreaction accelerator

Meat adulteration has brought economic losses, health risks, and religious concerns, making it a pressing global issue. Herein, combining the high amplification efficiency of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the accurate recognition of CRISPR/Cas12, a sensitive and reliable electrochemiluminescence (ECL) biosensor was developed for the detection of pufferfish authenticity using NiCo2O4 NCs@Au-ABEI as nanoemitters. In the presence of target DNA, the trans-cleavage activity of CRISPR/Cas12a is activated upon specific recognition by crRNA, and then it cleaves dopamine-modified single stranded DNA (ssDNA-DA), triggering the ECL signal from the "off" to "on" state. However, without target DNA, the trans-cleavage activity of CRISPR/Cas12a is silenced. By rationally designing corresponding primers and crRNA, the biosensor was applied to specific identification of four species of pufferfish. Furthermore, as low as 0.1 % (w/w) adulterate pufferfish in mixture samples could be detected. Overall, this work provides a simple, low-cost and sensitive approach to trace pufferfish adulteration.

Automated Patch Clamp for the Detection of Tetrodotoxin in Pufferfish Samples

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a marine toxin responsible for many intoxications around the world. Its presence in some pufferfish species and, as recently reported, in shellfish, poses a serious health concern. Although TTX is not routinely monitored, there is a need for fast, sensitive, reliable, and simple methods for its detection and quantification. In this work, we describe the use of an automated patch clamp (APC) system with Neuro-2a cells for the determination of TTX contents in pufferfish samples. The cells showed an IC50 of 6.4 nM for TTX and were not affected by the presence of muscle, skin, liver, and gonad tissues of a Sphoeroides pachygaster specimen (TTX-free) when analysed at 10 mg/mL. The LOD achieved with this technique was 0.05 mg TTX equiv./kg, which is far below the Japanese regulatory limit of 2 mg TTX equiv./kg. The APC system was applied to the analysis of extracts of a Lagocephalus sceleratus specimen, showing TTX contents that followed the trend of gonads > liver > skin > muscle. The APC system, providing an in vitro toxicological approach, offers the advantages of being sensitive, rapid, and reliable for the detection of TTX-like compounds in seafood.

A review on magnetic beads-based SELEX technologies: Applications from small to large target molecules

This review summarizes the stepwise strategy and key points for magnetic beads (MBs)-based aptamer selection which is suitable for isolating aptamers against small and large molecules via systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX). Particularities, if any, are discussed according to the target size. Examples targeting small molecules (<1000 Da) such as xenobiotics, toxins, pesticides, herbicides, illegal additives, hormones, and large targets such as proteins (biomarkers, pathogens) are discussed and presented in tabular formats. Of special interest are the latest advances in more efficient alternatives, which are based on novel instrumentation, materials or microelectronics, such as fluorescence MBs-SELEX or microfluidic chip system-assisted MBs-SELEX. Limitations and perspectives of MBs-SELEX are also reviewed. Taken together, this review aims to provide practical insights into MBs-SELEX technologies and their ability to screen multiple potential aptamers against targets from small to large molecules.

Nanotechnology-based analytical techniques for the detection of contaminants in aquatic products

Food safety of aquatic products has attracted considerable attention worldwide. Although a series of conventional bioassays and instrumental methods have been developed for the detection of pathogenic bacteria, heavy metal residues, marine toxins, and biogenic amines during the production and storage of fish, shrimp, crabs et al., the nanotechnology-based analyses still have their advantages and are promising since they are cost-efficient, highly sensitive and selective, easy to conduct, facial design, often require no sophisticated instruments but with excellent detection performance. This review aims to summarize the advances of various biosensing strategies for bacteria, metal ions, and small molecule contaminants in aquatic products during the last five years, The review highlights the development in nanotechnologies applied for biorecognition process, signal transduction and amplification methods in each novel approach, the nuclease-mediated DNA amplification, nanomaterials (noble metal nanoparticle, metal-organic frameworks, carbon dots), lateral flow-based biosensor, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, microfluidic chip, and molecular imprinting technologies were especially emphasized. Moreover, this study provides a view of current accomplishments, challenges, and future development directions of nanotechnology in aquatic product safety evaluation.

Selection and characterization of ssDNA aptamer targeting Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus capsid protein: A potential capture agent in gold-nanoparticle-based aptasensor for viral protein detection

The giant freshwater prawn holds a significant position as a valuable crustacean species cultivated in the aquaculture industry, particularly well-known and demanded among the Southeast Asian countries. Aquaculture production of this species has been impacted by Macrobrachium rosenbergii nodavirus (MrNV) infection, which particularly affects the larvae and post-larvae stages of the prawn. The infection has been recorded to cause mortality rates of up to 100% among the affected prawns. A simple, fast, and easy to deploy on-site detection or diagnostic method is crucial for early detection of MrNV to control the disease outbreak. In the present study, novel single-stranded DNA aptamers targeting the MrNV capsid protein were identified using the systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) approach. The aptamer was then conjugated with the citrate-capped gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), and the sensitivity of this AuNP-based aptasensor for the detection of MrNV capsid protein was evaluated. Findings revealed that the aptamer candidate, APT-MrNV-CP-1 was enriched throughout the SELEX cycle 4, 9, and 12 with the sequence percentage of 1.76%, 9.09%, and 12.42%, respectively. The conjugation of APT-MrNV-CP-1 with citrate-capped AuNPs exhibited the highest sensitivity in detecting the MrNV capsid protein, where the presence of 62.5 nM of the viral capsid protein led to a significant agglomeration of the AuNPs. This study demonstrated the practicality of an AuNP-based aptasensor for disease diagnosis, particularly for detecting MrNV infection in giant freshwater prawns.

Novel enzyme-linked aptamer-antibody sandwich assay and hybrid lateral flow strip for SARS-CoV-2 detection

We have successfully generated oligonucleotide aptamers (Apts) and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) targeting the recombinant nucleocapsid (N) protein of SARS-CoV-2. Apts were obtained through seven rounds of systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX), while mAbs were derived from the 6F6E11 hybridoma cell line. Leveraging these Apts and mAbs, we have successfully devised two innovative and remarkably sensitive detection techniques for the rapid identification of SARS-CoV-2 N protein in nasopharyngeal samples: the enzyme-linked aptamer-antibody sandwich assay (ELAAA) and the hybrid lateral flow strip (hybrid-LFS). ELAAA exhibited an impressive detection limit of 0.1 ng/mL, while hybrid-LFS offered a detection range of 0.1 - 0.5 ng/mL. In the evaluation using ten nasopharyngeal samples spiked with known N protein concentrations, ELAAA demonstrated an average recovery rate of 92%. Additionally, during the assessment of five nasopharyngeal samples from infected individuals and ten samples from healthy volunteers, hybrid-LFS displayed excellent sensitivity and specificity. Our study introduces a novel and efficient on-site approach for SARS-CoV-2 detection in nasopharyngeal samples. The reliable hybrid Apt-mAb strategy not only advances virus diagnostic methods but also holds promise in combating the spread of related diseases.

A label-free ratiometric fluorescent aptasensor based on a peroxidase-mimetic multifunctional ZrFe-MOF for the determination of tetrodotoxin

A Fe/Zr bimetal-organic framework (ZrFe-MOF) is utilized to establish a ratiometric fluorescent aptasensor for the determination of tetrodotoxin (TTX). The multifunctional ZrFe-MOF possesses inherent fluorescence at 445 nm wavelength, peroxidase-mimetic activity, and specific recognition and adsorption capabilities for aptamers, owing to its organic ligand, and Fe and Zr nodes. The peroxidation of o-phenylenediamine (OPD) substrate generates fluorescent 2,3-diaminophenazine (OPDox) at 555 nm wavelength, thus quenching the inherent fluorescence of ZrFe-MOF because of the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) effect. TTX aptamers, which are absorbed on the material surface without immobilization or fluorescent labeling, inhibit the peroxidase-mimetic activity of ZrFe-MOF. It causes the decreased OPDox fluorescence at 555 nm wavelength and the inverse restoration of ZrFe-MOF fluorescence at 445 nm wavelength. With TTX, the aptamers specifically bind to TTX, triggering rigid complex release from ZrFe-MOF surface and reactivating its peroxidase-mimetic activity. Consequently, the two fluorescence signals exhibit opposite changes. Employing this ratiometric strategy, the determination of TTX is achieved with a detection limit of 0.027 ng/mL and a linear range of 0.05-500 ng/mL. This aptasensor also successfully determines TTX concentrations in puffer fish and clam samples, demonstrating its promising application for monitoring trace TTX in food safety.

Multi-aptamer-mediated hairpin allosteric and aptamer-assisted CRISPR system for detection of S. pneumoniae and S. aureus

A novel nucleic acid aptamer nanoprobes-mediated hairpin allosteric and aptamer-assisted CRISPR system for detection of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus is presented. In this fluorescence assay system, utilizing the hairpin allosteric effect caused by the aptamer binding to the target bacteria, the detection of S. pneumoniae is first achieved through changes in fluorescence due to FRET. Subsequently, a Cas12a protein mixture is added to detect S. aureus. The amplified output signal is triggered by two methods to ensure the sensitivity of the method: the synergistic FRET effect is achieved by the assembly of multi-aptamer through the conjugation of streptavidin-biotin, and the trans-cleavage function of CRISPR/Cas 12a. Under the optimized conditions, the proposed hairpin allosteric aptasensor could achieve high sensitivity (a detection limit of 135 cfu/mL) and broad-concentration quantification (dynamic range of 103-107 cfu/mL) of S. pneumoniae. The aptamer-assisted CRISPR system for S. aureus detection showed good linearity (R2 = 0.996) in the concentration range 102-108 cfu/mL, with a detection limit of 39 cfu/mL. No cross-reactivity with other foodborne pathogenic bacteria was observed in both systems. Taking only 55 min, this method of multiple pathogen detection proved to be promising.

In Silico Selection and Validation of High-Affinity ssDNA Aptamers Targeting Paromomycin

Glycans are promising for disease diagnosis since glycan biosynthesis is significantly affected by disease states, and glycosylation changes are probably more pronounced than protein expression during the transformation to the diseased condition. Glycan-specific aptamers can be developed for challenging applications such as cancer targeting; however, the high flexibility of glycosidic bonds and scarcity of studies on glycan-aptamer binding mechanisms increased the difficulty of screening. In this work, the model of interactions between glycans and ssDNA aptamers synthesized based on the sequence of rRNA genes was developed. Our simulation-based approach revealed that paromomycin as a representative example of glycans is preferred to bind base-restricted stem structures of aptamers because they are more critical in stabilizing the flexible structures of glycans. Combined experiments and simulations have identified two optimal mutant aptamers. Our work would provide a potential strategy that the glycan-binding rRNA genes could act as the initial aptamer pools to accelerate aptamer screening. In addition, this in silico workflow would be potentially applied in the more extensive in vitro development and application of RNA-templated ssDNA aptamers targeting glycans.

Detection of Ciguatoxins and Tetrodotoxins in Seafood with Biosensors and Other Smart Bioanalytical Systems

The emergence of marine toxins such as ciguatoxins (CTXs) and tetrodotoxins (TTXs) in non-endemic regions may pose a serious food safety threat and public health concern if proper control measures are not applied. This article provides an overview of the main biorecognition molecules used for the detection of CTXs and TTXs and the different assay configurations and transduction strategies explored in the development of biosensors and other biotechnological tools for these marine toxins. The advantages and limitations of the systems based on cells, receptors, antibodies, and aptamers are described, and new challenges in marine toxin detection are identified. The validation of these smart bioanalytical systems through analysis of samples and comparison with other techniques is also rationally discussed. These tools have already been demonstrated to be useful in the detection and quantification of CTXs and TTXs, and are, therefore, highly promising for their implementation in research activities and monitoring programs.

Sensitive and rapid detection of tetrodotoxin based on gold nanoflower-and latex microsphere-labeled monoclonal antibodies

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) could result in serious diseases due to its extremely high neurotoxicity. Thus, it is of great importance to measure TTX for food safety. In this study, an anti-TTX monoclonal antibody with good specificity and high affinity was used to develop the immunochromatographic test strips (ICTS). Gold nanoflower (AuNF) with multiple branches and latex microsphere (LM) with large particle size as signal reporters were employed for improving the sensitivity of test strips. Both AuNF and LM probes are stable, and the developed ICTS were specific to TTX, demonstrating no cross-reactivity with other marine toxins. The linear range of AuNF- and LM-based strips for TTX was 9.49-330.98 ng/mL and 5.40-443.19 ng/mL, respectively. The limit of detection (LOD) of AuNF- and LM-based strips was determined to be 9.49 ng/mL and 5.40 ng/mL, respectively. In summary, the developed ICTS based on AuNF and LM signal probes displayed enhancement of sensitivity and provided rapid and specific detection of TTX.

Selection of G-rich ssDNA aptamers for the detection of enterotoxins of the cholera toxin family

Cholera and milder diarrheal disease are caused by Vibrio cholerae and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli and are still a prominent public health concern. Evaluation of suspicious isolates is essential for the rapid containment of acute diarrhea outbreaks or prevention of epidemic cholera. Existing detection techniques require expensive equipment, trained personnel and are time-consuming. Antibody-based methods are also available, but cost and stability issues can limit their applications for point-of-care testing. This study focused on the selection of single stranded DNA aptamers as simpler, more stable and more cost-effective alternatives to antibodies for the co-detection of AB₅ toxins secreted by enterobacteria causing acute diarrheal infections. Cholera toxin and Escherichia coli heat-labile enterotoxin, the key toxigenicity biomarkers of these bacteria, were immobilized on magnetic beads and were used in a SELEX-based selection strategy. This led to the enrichment of sequences with a high % GC content and a dominant G-rich motif as revealed by Next Generation Sequencing. Enriched sequences were confirmed to fold into G-quadruplex structures and the binding of one of the most abundant candidates to the two enterotoxins was confirmed. Ongoing work is focused on the development of monitoring tools for potential environmental surveillance of epidemic choleraand milder diarrheal disease.

Target-Synergized Biologically Mediated RAFT Polymerization for Electrochemical Aptasensing of Femtomolar Thrombin

The assay of thrombin levels is integral to the assessment of coagulation function and clinical screening of coagulation disorder-related diseases. In this work, we illustrate the ingenious use of the target-synergized biologically mediated reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization (tsBMRP) as a novel amplification strategy for the electrochemical aptamer-based biosensing of thrombin at the femtomolar levels. Briefly, the tsBMRP-based strategy relies on the boronate affinity-mediated decoration of the glycan chain(s) of the target itself with RAFT agents and the subsequent recruitment of signal labels via BMRP, mediated by the direct reduction of RAFT agents by NADH into initiating/propagating radicals. Obviously, the tsBMRP-based strategy is biologically friendly, low-cost, and simple in operation. As thrombin is a glycoconjugate, its electrochemical aptasensing involves the use of the thrombin-binding aptamer (TBA) as the recognition receptor, the site-specific decoration of RAFT agents to the glycan chain of thrombin via boronate affinity, and further the recruitment of ferrocene signal labels via the BMRP of ferrocenylmethyl methacrylate (FcMMA). As boronate affinity results in the decoration of each glycan chain with tens of RAFT agents while BMRP recruits hundreds of signal labels to each RAFT agent-decorated site, the tsBMRP-based strategy allows us to detect thrombin at a concentration of 35.3 fM. This electrochemical aptasensor is highly selective, and its applicability to thrombin detection in serum samples has been further demonstrated. The merits of high sensitivity and selectivity, low cost, good anti-interference capability, and simple operation make the tsBMRP-based electrochemical thrombin aptasensor great promise in biomedical and clinical applications.

Electroactive and SERS-Active Ag@Cu2O NP-Programed Aptasensor for Dual-Mode Detection of Tetrodotoxin

Dual-mode nanotags with noninterference sensing signals improved the detection accuracy and sensitivity for the applications of tetrodotoxin (TTX) monitoring. Electroactive and surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS)-active Ag@Cu2O nanoparticles (NPs) were fabricated and displayed two electrooxidation signals at -0.13 and 0.17 V, attributed to the oxidization process of Cu+ and Ag0, respectively. Ag@Cu2O NPs were also found to exhibit stronger SERS performances than individual Ag NPs. The dielectric Cu2O shell with a large dielectric constant inhibited the attenuation of electromagnetic (EM) waves of Ag NPs, which strengthened the EM fields for SERS enhancement. The electron transfer from Ag to Cu2O to 4-aminothiophenol (4-ATP) also contributed to the SERS performances. Ag@Cu2O NPs were modified by TTX aptamers and assembled with MXene nanosheets (NSs) due to the large surface, good conductivity, and inherent Raman properties. The assemblies showed two-peaked electrooxidation signals and prominent SERS activity. An electrochemical detection curve was established by using the total peak intensity at -0.13 and 0.17 V as detection signals, and a ratiometric SERS detection curve was developed by applying the intensity at 1078 cm-1 (4-ATP) as the detection signal and 730 cm-1 (MXene NSs) as the reference signal. An electrochemical and SERS signal-programed dual-mode aptasensor was proposed for accurate TTX detection, with the limits of detection of 31.6 pg/mL for the electrochemical signal and 38.3 pg/mL for the SERS signal. The rational design of plasmonic metal-semiconductor heterogeneous nanocomposites had important prospects in establishing a multimodal biosensing platform for the quantitative and accurate detection of analytes in complex systems.

Capture-SELEX: Selection Strategy, Aptamer Identification, and Biosensing Application

Small-molecule contaminants, such as antibiotics, pesticides, and plasticizers, have emerged as one of the substances most detrimental to human health and the environment. Therefore, it is crucial to develop low-cost, user-friendly, and portable biosensors capable of rapidly detecting these contaminants. Antibodies have traditionally been used as biorecognition elements. However, aptamers have recently been applied as biorecognition elements in aptamer-based biosensors, also known as aptasensors. The systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) is an in vitro technique used to generate aptamers that bind their targets with high affinity and specificity. Over the past decade, a modified SELEX method known as Capture-SELEX has been widely used to generate DNA or RNA aptamers that bind small molecules. In this review, we summarize the recent strategies used for Capture-SELEX, describe the methods commonly used for detecting and characterizing small-molecule-aptamer interactions, and discuss the development of aptamer-based biosensors for various applications. We also discuss the challenges of the Capture-SELEX platform and biosensor development and the possibilities for their future application.

Programmed Aptamer Screening, Characterization, and Rapid Detection for α-Conotoxin MI

Conotoxins (CTXs) are a variety of mixed polypeptide toxins, among which α-conotoxin MI (CTX-MI) is the most toxic. Serious toxic symptoms, a lack of counteracting drugs, and cumbersome detection processes have made CTX-MI a hidden danger for humans. One of the obstacles to resolving this problem is the absence of specific recognition elements. Aptamers have shown great advantages in the fields of molecule detection, drug development, etc. In this study, we screened and characterized aptamers for CTX-MI through a programmed process. MBMI-01c, the isolated aptamer, showed great affinity, with an affinity constant (K_D) of 0.524 μM, and it formed an antiparallel G-quadruplet (GQ) structure for the specific recognition of CTX-MI. Additionally, an aptasensor based on the biolayer interferometry (BLI) platform was developed and displayed high precision, specificity, and repeatability with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.26 μM. This aptasensor provides a potential tool for the rapid detection of CTX-MI in 10 min. The aptamer can be further developed for the enrichment, detoxification, and biological studies of CTX-MI. Additionally, the programmed process is applicable to screening and characterizing aptamers for other CTXs.

Tetrodotoxin and Its Analogues in Food: Recent Updates on Sample Preparation and Analytical Methods Since 2012

Tetrodotoxin (TTX), found in various organisms including pufferfish, is an extremely potent marine toxin responsible for numerous food poisoning accidents. Due to its serious toxicity and public health threat, detecting TTX and its analogues in diverse food matrices with a simple, fast, efficient method has become a worldwide concern. This review summarizes the advances in sample preparation and analytical methods for the determination of TTX and its analogues, focusing on the latest development over the past five years. Current state-of-the-art technologies, such as solid-phase microextraction, online technology, novel injection technology, two-dimensional liquid chromatography, high-resolution mass spectrometry, newly developed lateral flow immunochromatographic strips, immunosensors, dual-mode aptasensors, and nanomaterials-based approaches, are thoroughly discussed. The advantages and limitations of different techniques, critical comments, and future perspectives are also proposed. This review is expected to provide rewarding insights to the future development and broad application of pretreatment and detection methods for TTX and its analogues.

Sandwich capture ultrasensitive sensor based on biohybrid interface for the detection of Cronobacter sakazakii

A simple, rapid and ultrasensitive visual sensing method for the detection of Cronobacter sakazakii (C. sakazakii) based on a biohybrid interface was established. During the entire sensing process, quadruple-cascade amplification showed its superior sensing performance. First, the prepared immunomagnetic beads (IMB) were used to isolate and enrich specific targets from the food matrix. After adding the fusion aptamer, the aptamer sequence specifically recognized the target and formed the immune sandwich structure of antibody-target-fusion aptamer. In addition, the fusion aptamer also included the template sequence of exponential amplification reaction (EXPAR), which contained the antisense sequence of the G-rich sequence. Therefore, a large number of G-rich sequences can be generated after EXPAR can be triggered in the presence of Bst. DNA polymerase, nicking endonuclease, cDNA, and dNTP. They were self-assembled into G-quadruplex structures and then combined with hemin to form G4/hemin DNAzyme, resulting in visible coloration and measuring absorbance at 450 nm for quantitative detection. The assay showed a limit of detection (LOD) of 2 CFU/mL in pure culture and 12 CFU/g in milk powder in optimal conditions. This method provides a promising strategy for rapid and point-of-care testing (POCT) since it does not require DNA extraction, medium culturing, and expensive instrumentation. KEY POINTS: •Single-cell level detection of C. sakazakii with ultrasensitive and rapidness •The fusion aptamer integrated recognition and amplification •Sensing analysis of C. sakazakii based on cascade amplification of biohybrid interface.

Selection of Aptamers for Sensing Caffeine and Discrimination of Its Three Single Demethylated Analogues

With the growing consumption of caffeine-containing beverages, detection of caffeine has become an important biomedical, bioanalytical, and environmental topic. We herein isolated four high-quality aptamers for caffeine with dissociation constants ranging from 2.2 to 14.6 μM as characterized using isothermal titration calorimetry. Different binding patterns were obtained for the three single demethylated analogues: theobromine, theophylline, and paraxanthine, highlighting the effect of the molecular symmetry of the arrangement of the three methyl groups in caffeine. A structure-switching fluorescent sensor was designed showing a detection limit of 1.2 μM caffeine, which reflected the labeled caffeine concentration within 6.1% difference for eight commercial beverages. In 20% human serum, a detection limit of 4.0 μM caffeine was achieved. With the four aptamer sensors forming an array, caffeine and the three analogues were well separated from nine other closely related molecules.

An Updated Review of Tetrodotoxin and Its Peculiarities

Tetrodotoxin (TTX) is a crystalline, weakly basic, colorless organic substance and is one of the most potent marine toxins known. Although TTX was first isolated from pufferfish, it has been found in numerous other marine organisms and a few terrestrial species. Moreover, tetrodotoxication is still an important health problem today, as TTX has no known antidote. TTX poisonings were most commonly reported from Japan, Thailand, and China, but today the risk of TTX poisoning is spreading around the world. Recent studies have shown that TTX-containing fish are being found in other regions of the Pacific and in the Indian Ocean, as well as the Mediterranean Sea. This review aims to summarize pertinent information available to date on the structure, origin, distribution, mechanism of action of TTX and analytical methods used for the detection of TTX, as well as on TTX-containing organisms, symptoms of TTX poisoning, and incidence worldwide.