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Mendo Diaz O, Patiny L, Tell A, Hutter J, Knobloch M, Stalder U, Kern S, Bigler L, Heeb N, Bleiner D. A Quasi Real-Time Evaluation of High-Resolution Mass Spectra of Complex Chlorinated Paraffin Mixtures and Their Transformation Products. Anal Chem 2024; 96. [PMID: 39012265 PMCID: PMC11295122 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c01723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2024] [Revised: 07/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are complex mixtures of polychlorinated n-alkanes with multiple carbon- (C-, nC = 9-30) and chlorine homologues (Cl-, nCl = 3-18). The mass spectrometric analysis of CPs is time-consuming and challenging, especially when interferences between CPs, their transformation products, or from the matrix are numerous. These analytical challenges and the lack of appropriate and accessible data evaluation tools are obstacles to their analysis. CP-Hunter is a web-based, open-access data processing platform for the automatic analysis of mass spectra of CPs and their transformation products. Extracts of two consumer plastic materials and sewage sludge were evaluated with CP-Hunter. C- and Cl-homologue distributions were obtained in quasi-real-time and the posterior calculated fingerprints were in agreement with the ones obtained by traditional methods. However, the data extraction and evaluation time were now reduced from several minutes to seconds. The implemented signal deconvolution method, i.e., to resolve mass spectrometric interferences, provides robust results, even when severe matrix effects are present. CP-Hunter facilitates the untargeted analysis of unknown products and the detection and elimination of false positive signals. Finally, data evaluation with CP-Hunter is performed locally without the transfer of data to external servers. The tool is safe, public, and accessible at https://cphunter.cheminfo.org/.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oscar Mendo Diaz
- Empa
Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
- UZH, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zürich 8057, Switzerland
| | - Luc Patiny
- Zakodium
Sàrl, Route d’Echandens
6b, Lonay1027, Switzerland
| | - Adriana Tell
- Empa
Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
- Departement
Life Sciences und Facility Management, ZHAW
Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, Wadenswil8820, Switzerland
| | - Jules Hutter
- Empa
Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Marco Knobloch
- Suisse
Office fédéral de la sécurité alimentaire
et des affaires vétérinaires, Bern 3003, Switzerland
| | - Urs Stalder
- UZH, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zürich 8057, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kern
- Departement
Life Sciences und Facility Management, ZHAW
Zürcher Hochschule für Angewandte Wissenschaften, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, Wadenswil8820, Switzerland
| | | | - Norbert Heeb
- Empa
Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Empa
Materials Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, Dübendorf 8600, Switzerland
- UZH, Winterthurerstrasse 190, Zürich 8057, Switzerland
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2
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Parvizian BA, Helm PA, Fernando S, Crimmins BS, Hopke PK, Holsen TM. Short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in surface sediment from Lake Ontario. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:38358-38366. [PMID: 38801611 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33788-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Concentrations of short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs and MCCPs) were analyzed and investigated in surficial sediment collected in 2018 from ten different nearshore sites in Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River influenced by inputs from varying urban and historical land uses. Sites were grouped into two categories of tributary and lake according to their location. Results show that tributary sites had higher concentrations of total chlorinated paraffin (CP) than lake sites. Humber Bay, a lake site, had the highest total CP concentration (55,000 ng/gTOC) followed by Humber River, a tributary site (50,000 ng/gTOC). The lowest concentrations were found in eastern Lake Ontario and Lake St. Francis in the St. Lawrence River (540 ng/gTOC). Higher concentrations of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) were found where runoff and wastewater inputs from urban areas, current industrial activities, and population were the greatest. Levels of MCCPs were higher than SCCPs at all sites but one, Lake St. Francis. Among the SCCPs, C13 and among the MCCPs C14 were the dominant chain length alkanes, with C14 being the highest among both groups. The SCCPs and MCCPs profiles suggest that they can be used to distinguish between sites impacted by local sources vs. sites impacted by short-/long-range transport of these chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bita Alipour Parvizian
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA
| | - Paul A Helm
- Environmental Monitoring & Reporting Branch, Ontario Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks, 125 Resources Road, Toronto, ON, M9P 3V6, Canada
| | - Sujan Fernando
- Center for Air and Aquatic Resources Engineering and Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA
| | - Bernard S Crimmins
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA
- AEACS, 1015 Hunt Valley Cir, LLC, New Kensington, PA, 15068, USA
| | - Philip K Hopke
- Center for Air and Aquatic Resources Engineering and Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA.
- Department of Public Health Sciences, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY, 14642, USA.
| | - Thomas M Holsen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA
- Center for Air and Aquatic Resources Engineering and Science, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, 13699, USA
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3
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Mendo Diaz O, Tell A, Knobloch M, Canonica E, Walder C, Buser AM, Stalder U, Bigler L, Kern S, Bleiner D, Heeb NV. Fingerprinting of chlorinated paraffins and their transformation products in plastic consumer products. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 338:139552. [PMID: 37480948 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.139552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/24/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) can be classified according to their length as short-chain (SC, C10-C13), medium-chain (MC, C14-C17) and long-chain (LC, C ≥ 18) CPs. Technical CP-mixtures can contain a wide range of carbon- (C-, nC = 10-30) and chlorine- (Cl-, nCl = 3-19) homologues. CPs are high-production volume chemicals (>106 t/y). They are used as flame-retardants, plasticizers and coolant fluids. Due to the persistence, bioaccumulation, long-range environmental transport potential and adverse effects, SCCPs are regulated as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by the Stockholm Convention. Transformation of CPs can lead to the formation of unsaturated compounds such as chlorinated mono- (CO), di- (CdiO) and tri-olefins (CtriO). Such transformation reactions can occur at different stages of CP manipulation providing characteristic C-/Cl-homologue distributions. All this results in unique patterns that collectively create a fingerprint, which can be distinguished from CP-containing samples. Therefore, CP-fingerprinting can develop into a promising tool for future source apportionment studies and with it, the reduction of environmental burden of CPs and hazards to humans. Herein, CP-containing plastics were studied to establish fingerprints and develop this method. We analyzed four household items by reverse-phase liquid-chromatography coupled with a mass spectrometer with an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization source and an Orbitrap mass analyzer (RP-LC-APCI-Orbitrap-MS) operated at a resolution of 120000 (FWHM at m/z 200). MS-data of different CP-, CO-, CdiO- and CtriO-homologues were efficiently processed with an R-based automatic mass spectra evaluation routine (RASER). From the 16720 ions searched for, up to 4300 ions per sample were assigned to 340 C-/Cl-homologues of CPs and their transformation products. Specific fingerprints were deduced from the C-/Cl-homologues distributions, the carbon- (nC) and chlorine- (nCl) numbers and saturation degree. These fingerprints were compared with the ones obtained by a GC-ECNI-Orbitrap-MS method.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Mendo Diaz
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - A Tell
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - M Knobloch
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - E Canonica
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - C Walder
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - A M Buser
- Swiss Federal Office for the Environment, Monbijoustrasse 40, 3003, Bern, Switzerland
| | - U Stalder
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - L Bigler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - S Kern
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - D Bleiner
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - N V Heeb
- Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Kutarna S, Du X, Diamond ML, Blum A, Peng H. Widespread presence of chlorinated paraffins in consumer products. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2023; 25:893-900. [PMID: 37039315 DOI: 10.1039/d2em00494a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) were listed for elimination under the Stockholm Convention in 2017 due to their persistence and toxicity. Although Canada and other Stockholm signatories have prohibited the manufacture, usage and import of SCCPs since 2013, they can still be detected at high concentrations in indoor dust. To identify the sources of the SCCPs in the Canadian indoor environment, short-, medium- and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs, MCCPs, LCCPs, respectively) were measured using a sensitive LC-ESI-orbitrap method. SCCPs were detected in 84 of the 96 products purchased in Canada after 2013 (87.5%) including electronic devices, clothing, plastics (toys), and paintings. Concentrations of SCCPs were up to 0.93% (9.34 mg g-1). SCCPs were also detected in newly purchased toys at 0.005-2.02 mg g-1, indicating the potential for children's exposure. Profiles of chlorinated paraffins differed among categories of products. For example, C13-SCCPs were most common in toys, while electronic devices like headphones showed comparable concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs. Additionally, four new carboxylate derivatives of CPs were detected in an electronic device sample. These are the first data to show the ubiquitous occurrences of SCCPs in a wide range of products currently marketed in Canada, suggesting continuing indoor exposure to SCCPs despite their prohibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven Kutarna
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S3H6, Canada.
| | - Xuan Du
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S3H6, Canada.
| | - Miriam L Diamond
- Department of Earth Sciences, University of Toronto, ON, Canada
- School of the Environment, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Arlene Blum
- Green Science Policy Institute, Berkeley, California 94709, USA
- Department of Cell and Molecular Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Hui Peng
- Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, M5S3H6, Canada.
- School of the Environment, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
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5
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Liu S, Ye X, Zhou X, Chen C, Huang Y, Fang S, Guo P, Ouyang G. In Vivo Profiling and Quantification of Chlorinated Paraffin Homologues in Living Fish. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:3053-3061. [PMID: 36790355 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c05923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Herein, we demonstrate the ability of a dual-purpose periodic mesoporous organosilica (PMO) probe to track the complex chlorinated paraffin (CP) composition in living animals by assembling it as an adsorbent-assisted atmospheric pressure chemical ionization Fourier-transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (APCI-FT-ICR-MS) platform and synchronously performing it as the in vivo sampling device. First, synchronous solvent-free ionization and in-source thermal desorption of CP homologues were achieved by the introduction of the PMO adsorbent-assisted APCI module, generating exclusive adduct ions ([M - H]-) of individual CP homologues (CnClm) with enhanced ionization efficiency. Improved detection limits of short- and medium-chain CPs (0.10-24 and 0.48-5.0 pg/μL) were achieved versus those of the chloride-anion attachment APCI-MS methods. Second, the dual-purpose PMO probe was applied to extract the complex CP compositions in living animals, following APCI-FT-ICR-MS analysis. A modified pattern-deconvolution algorithm coupled with the sampling-rate calibration method was used for the quantification of CPs in living fish. In vivo quantification of a tilapia exposed to technical CPs for 7 days was successfully achieved, with ∑SCCPs and ∑MCCPs of the sampled fish calculated to be 1108 ± 289 and 831 ± 266 μg/kg, respectively. Meanwhile, 58 potential CP metabolites were identified in living fish for the first time during in vivo sampling of CPs, a capacity that could provide an important tool for future study regarding its expected risks to humans and its environmental fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuqin Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Xiaoji Ye
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Xi Zhou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Chao Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Yiquan Huang
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Shuting Fang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Pengran Guo
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Gangfeng Ouyang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Measurement and Emergency Test Technology, Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center for Ambient Mass Spectrometry, Institute of Analysis, Guangdong Academy of Sciences (China National Analytical Center Guangzhou), Guangzhou 510070, China
- KLGHEI of Environment and Energy Chemistry, School of Chemistry, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
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6
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McGrath TJ, Christia C, Poma G, Covaci A. Seasonal variation of short-, medium- and long-chain chlorinated paraffin distribution in Belgian indoor dust. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 170:107616. [PMID: 36370602 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107616] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2022] [Revised: 10/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are high production volume plasticizers and flame retardants, which have exhibited bioaccumulative and toxic properties. CPs may be released from treated consumer goods and bind with indoor dust, leading to human exposure via unintentional dust ingestion. In this study, the concentrations and homologue distribution of CPs were measured in 50 indoor dust samples collected in paired winter and summer sampling campaigns from 25 homes in Flanders, Belgium. Short-, medium- and long-chain CPs (SCCPs (C10-13), MCCPs (C14-17) and LCCPs (C18-20), respectively) were each detected in all Belgian indoor dust samples with overall median concentrations of 6.1 µg/g (range 0.61 to 120 µg/g), 45 µg/g (range 4.5 to 520 µg/g) and 4.5 µg/g (range 0.3 to 50 µg/g), respectively. Concentrations were significantly higher in the winter samples than summer for each of the three groups (p < 0.05). LCCPs homologues ranging from C21-32 were also detected in dust samples and accounted for approximately half of the LCCP relative abundance based on instrumental peak area, although a lack of appropriate analytical standards prevented quantification of these homologues. While clear sources of CP contamination in dust could not be identified, significant associations between concentrations of ∑SCCPs, ∑MCCPs and ∑LCCPs (C18-20) (p < 0.05) suggested the combined application within materials or products in homes. Based on typical exposure scenarios, estimated daily intake of ∑CPs (C10-20) for adults and toddlers were 14 and 270 ng/kg bw/day, respectively, though margin of exposure assessments for SCCPs and MCCPs indicated that adverse health effects were unlikely for all exposure scenarios. This study presents the first evidence of seasonal variation in the levels and distribution for each of the SCCP, MCCP and LCCP classes in indoor dust and highlights the urgent need for appropriate analytical standards for LCCP quantification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas J McGrath
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Christina Christia
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Giulia Poma
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Adrian Covaci
- Toxicological Centre, University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
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Knobloch MC, Mathis F, Diaz OM, Stalder U, Bigler L, Kern S, Bleiner D, Heeb NV. Selective and Fast Analysis of Chlorinated Paraffins in the Presence of Chlorinated Mono-, Di-, and Tri-Olefins with the R-Based Automated Spectra Evaluation Routine (RASER). Anal Chem 2022; 94:13777-13784. [PMID: 36169133 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c02240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are complex mixtures consisting of various C homologues (nC ≈ 10-30) and Cl homologues (nCl ≈ 2-20). Technical CP mixtures are produced on a large scale (>106 t/y) and are widely used such as plasticizers in plastic and coolants in metalwork. Since 2017, short-chain CPs (C10-C13) are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) by the Stockholm Convention but longer-chain CPs are not regulated. Analysis of technical CP mixtures is challenging because they consist of hundreds of homologues and millions of constitutional isomers and stereoisomers. Furthermore, such mixtures can also contain byproducts and transformation products such as chlorinated olefins (COs). We applied a liquid-chromatography method coupled to an atmospheric pressure chemical ionization technique with a high-resolution mass detector (LC-APCI-Orbitrap-MS) to study CP and CO homologues in two plastic materials. Respective mass spectra can contain up to 23,000 signals from 1320 different C-Cl homologue classes. The R-based automated spectra evaluation routine (RASER) was developed to efficiently search for characteristic ions in these complex mass spectra. With it, the time needed to evaluate such spectra was reduced from weeks to hours, compared to manual data evaluation. Unique sets of homologue distributions could be obtained from the two plastic materials. CPs were found together with their transformation products, the chlorinated mono-olefins (COs), di-olefins (CdiOs), and tri-olefins (CtriOs) in both plastic materials. Based on these examples, it can be shown that RASER is an efficient and selective tool for evaluating high-resolution mass spectra of CP mixtures containing hundreds of homologues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco C Knobloch
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Flurin Mathis
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Oscar Mendo Diaz
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Urs Stalder
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Laurent Bigler
- Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kern
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820 Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.,Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Norbert V Heeb
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Du X, Yuan B, Li J, Yin G, Qiu Y, Zhao J, Duan X, Wu Y, Lin T, Zhou Y. Distribution, behavior, and risk assessment of chlorinated paraffins in paddy plants throughout whole growth cycle. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 167:107404. [PMID: 35868077 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2022] [Revised: 07/06/2022] [Accepted: 07/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Paddy plants provide staple food for 3 billion people worldwide. This study explores the environmental fate and behavior of a high-volume production emerging contaminants chlorinated paraffins (CPs) in the paddy ecosystem. Very-short-, short-, medium-, and long-chain CPs (vSCCPs, SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs, respectively) were analyzed in specific tissue of paddy plants at four main growth stages and soils from the Yangtze River Delta, China throughout a full rice growing season. The total CP concentrations in the paddy roots, stalks, leaves, panicles, hulls, rice, and soils ranged from 181 to 1.74 × 103, 21.7-383, 19.6-585, 108-332, 245-470, 59.6-130, and 99.6-400 ng/g dry weight, respectively. The distribution profile indicated the translocation of SCCPs and MCCPs from soils to paddy tissue, highlighting their elevated bioaccumulative potential. The evolution of CP level/mass/pattern during the whole growth cycle suggested atmospheric CPs deposition on leaves and hulls, as well as stalk-rice transfer. CSOIL plant uptake model well predicted the level, distribution pattern, and bioconcentration factors (BCFs) of SCCPs and MCCPs in paddy shoot and recognized the soil-air-shoot pathway as the major contributor. Moreover, risk evaluation indicated that MCCPs intake and subsequent risks dominated the total exposure to CPs via rice ingestion. This is the first report on the occurrence, fate and risk assessment of all CPs classes in paddy ecosystems, and the results underline the potential health effects caused by the in-use MCCPs via rice ingestion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Du
- College of Marine Ecology and Environment, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Chemistry, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jun Li
- School of the Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China.
| | - Ge Yin
- Shimadzu (China) Co., LTD, Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Yanling Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Jianfu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xuchuan Duan
- School of the Earth Sciences and Resources, China University of Geosciences, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yan Wu
- Key Laboratory of Geographic Information Science (Ministry of Education), School of Geographic Sciences, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200241, China
| | - Tian Lin
- College of Marine Ecology and Environment, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai 201306, China
| | - Yihui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
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9
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Knobloch MC, Sprengel J, Mathis F, Haag R, Kern S, Bleiner D, Vetter W, Heeb NV. Chemical synthesis and characterization of single-chain C 18-chloroparaffin materials with defined degrees of chlorination. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 291:132938. [PMID: 34798110 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/14/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Technical chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are produced via radical chlorination of n-alkane feedstocks with different carbon chain-lengths (∼C10-C30). Short-chain CPs (SCCPs, C10-C13) are classified as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention. This regulation has induced a shift to use longer-chain CPs as substitutes. Consequently, medium-chain (MCCPs, C14-C17) and long-chain (LCCPs, C>17) CPs have become dominant homologues in recent environmental samples. However, no suitable LCCP-standard materials are available. Herein, we report on the chemical synthesis of single-chain C18-CP-materials, starting with a pure n-alkane and sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2). Fractionation of the crude product by normal-phase liquid-chromatography and pooling of suitable fractions yielded in four C18-CP-materials with different chlorination degrees (mCl,EA = 39-52%). In addition, polar side-products, tentatively identified as sulfite-, sulfate- and bis-sulfate-diesters, were separated from CPs. The new single-chain materials were characterized by LC-MS, 1H-NMR and EA. LC-MS provided Relative retention times for different C18-CP homologues and side-products. Mathematical deconvolution of full-scan mass spectra revealed the presence of chloroparaffins (57-93%) and chloroolefins (COs, 7-26%) in the four single-chain C18-CP-materials. Homologue distributions and chlorination degrees were deduced for CPs and COs. 1H-NMR revealed chemical shift ranges of mono-chlorinated (δ = 3.2-5.3 ppm) and non-chlorinated (δ = 1.0-3.2 ppm) hydrocarbon moieties. The synthesized C18-single-chain standard materials and respective spectroscopic data are useful to identify and quantify LCCPs in various materials and environmental samples. CP- and CO-distributions resemble the ones of existing SCCP and MCCP reference materials and technical mixtures. Furthermore, these materials now allow specific studies on the environmental fate and the transformation of long-chain chloroparaffins and chloroolefins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco C Knobloch
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Jannik Sprengel
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstrasse 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Flurin Mathis
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Regula Haag
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kern
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstrasse 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Norbert V Heeb
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
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10
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Vetter W, Sprengel J, Krätschmer K. Chlorinated paraffins - A historical consideration including remarks on their complexity. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 287:132032. [PMID: 34523451 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2021] [Revised: 08/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are high production volume chemicals currently produced and used in higher quantities than any other medium-size polyhalogenated compound (class). In addition, the composition of industrial CP mixtures is highly complex and poorly understood. In this article, we searched in the literature for the beginning of the chlorination of alkanes and how this substance class developed from niche applications to unmatched quantities in various industrial applications. Also, an estimation was made on the theoretical variety of chloroparaffins and the possible complexity of industrial CP mixtures. These data may explain why little is known about CPs although the production volume throughout the industrial generation was virtually always higher than the one of PCBs and has continued to increase after the ban of the latter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany.
| | - Jannik Sprengel
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Kerstin Krätschmer
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstr. 28, 70599, Stuttgart, Germany; European Union Reference Laboratory (EURL) for halogenated POPs in Feed and Food, Bissierstraße 5, 79114, Freiburg, Germany
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11
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Knobloch MC, Schinkel L, Kohler HPE, Mathis F, Kern S, Bleiner D, Heeb NV. Transformation of short-chain chlorinated paraffins and olefins with the bacterial dehalogenase LinB from Sphingobium Indicum - Kinetic models for the homologue-specific conversion of reactive and persistent material. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 283:131199. [PMID: 34153917 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 06/09/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Structure, reactivity and physico-chemical properties of polyhalogenated compounds determine their up-take, transport, bio-accumulation, transformation and toxicity and their environmental fate. In technical mixtures of chlorinated paraffins (CPs), these properties are distributed due to the presence of thousands of homologues. We hypothesized that roles of CP dehalogenation reactions, catalyzed by the haloalkane dehalogenase LinB, depend on structural properties of the substrates, e.g. chlorination degree and carbon-chain length. We exposed mixtures of chlorinated undecanes, dodecanes and tridecanes in-vitro to LinB from Sphingobium Indicum bacteria. These single-chain CP-materials also contain small amounts of chlorinated olefins (COs), which can be distinct by mathematical deconvolution of respective mass-spectra. With this procedure, we obtained homologue-specific transformation kinetics of substrates differing in saturation degree, chlorination degree and carbon chain-length. For all homologues, two-stage first-order kinetic models were established, which described the faster conversion of reactive material and the slower transformation of more persistent material. Half-lifes of 0.5-3.2 h and 56-162 h were determined for more reactive and more persistent CP-material. Proportions of persistent material increased steadily from 18 to 67% for lower (Cl6) to higher (Cl11) chlorinated paraffins and olefins. Conversion efficiencies decreased with increasing chlorination degree from 97 to 70%. Carbon-chain length had only minor effects on transformation rates. Hence, the conversion was faster and more efficient for lower-chlorinated material, and slower for higher-chlorinated and longer-chained CPs and COs. Current legislation has banned short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) and forced a transition to longer-chain CPs. This may be counterproductive with regard to enzymatic transformation with LinB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco C Knobloch
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Lena Schinkel
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology Eawag, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Peter E Kohler
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology Eawag, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Flurin Mathis
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Unterstrass 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Susanne Kern
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Unterstrass 31, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Norbert V Heeb
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
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12
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Chloride-attachment atmospheric pressure photoionisation for the determination of short-chain chlorinated paraffins by gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry. Anal Chim Acta 2021; 1172:338673. [PMID: 34119025 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2021.338673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
In this work, a new gas chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (GC-HRMS) method based on atmospheric pressure photoionisation (APPI) has been developed for the accurate determination of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) as a reliable alternative to the established methods. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time these compounds has been analysed by GC-MS using atmospheric pressure photoionisation (APPI). Efficient ionisation of SCCPs was achieved using the new GC-APPI source by the formation of [M+Cl]- adduct ions in negative ion mode using dopant-assisted APPI with a mixture of acetone/CCl4 (3:1, v/v). Operating at a resolution of 70,000 FWHM (full width at half maximum) and monitoring the [M+Cl]- adduct ions for each congener group, a selective determination of the SCCPs was achieved, avoiding isobaric interferences between homologue groups with different carbon chain length and chlorination degree. Moreover, the GC-APPI-HRMS response of each congener group was mainly influenced by its concentration and did not depend on the number of chlorine atoms in the molecule as occurs with the GC-MS methods based on the electron-capture negative ionisation (ECNI). Thus, the contribution of the different carbon and chlorine homologue groups in the SCCP mixtures was determined by the internal normalization method, and the quantification was performed independently of the chlorine content of the SCCP standard mixture employed. The developed GC-APPI-HRMS method offers some interesting advantages over the existing methods, particularly the possibility to quantify individual SCCP congener groups, the use of a simple calibration method for quantification, and an important time-saving in the data processing, especially over ECNI-based traditional methods. The GC-APPI-HRMS method allowed the determination of SCCPs at low concentration levels in fish samples with low method limits of detection (17-34 pg g-1 wet weight for total SCCPs), good precision (RSD < 7%) and trueness (relative error < 8%) and can be proposed as a reliable alternative of the established methods for the determination of these pollutants in environmental samples.
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13
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Huang X, Ding C, Su Q, Wang Y, Cui Z, Yin Q, Wang X. A simplified method for determination of short-, medium-, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins using tetramethyl ammonium chloride as mobile phase modifier. J Chromatogr A 2021; 1642:462002. [PMID: 33735642 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2021.462002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 02/09/2021] [Accepted: 02/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The formation of halide adducts ion is an important pathway to improve the sensitivity of analytes in liquid chromatography (LC) combined with negative electrospray ionization (ESI) mass spectrometry (MS). Although adding modifier in mobile phase is generally the simplest way to form anions adducts, the formation of halide adducts ion requires a complex post-column addition strategy since traditional halide ionization enhancement reagents are incompatible with LC systems. To solve this problem, the volatile organochlorine salt tetramethyl ammonium chloride (TMAC) was therefore investigated as a potentially non-corrosive mobile phase modifier that was confirmed to be compatible with both LC and MS systems in this study. When short-chain, medium-chain, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (CPs) were determinated simultaneously by ultra-high performance LC combined with ESI high resolution MS (UPLC-ESI-HRMS), all of them tended to ionize by forming [M+Cl]- ions and exhibited excellent sensitivity with the instrumental detection limits of 1-4 pg/μL. Meanwhile, their sensitivities towards CPs were less dependent on their Cl content with the total relative response factors of 0.8-3.5. The method's utility was demonstrated through determination of CPs in surface soil and chicken muscle samples. This was an effective and practical method to enhance the selectivity for [M + Cl]- ions and improve sensitivity towards CPs with various carbon lengths. Importantly, post-column addition was not required, and thus the analytical procedure was simplified. The method has also improved sensitivity towards some other organohalides and may be generally useful in the determination of challenging organic analytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaomei Huang
- Institute of Quality Standard and Monitoring Technology for Agro-products, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Agro-product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510640, China; Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment For Agro-products (Guangzhou), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Chenhong Ding
- Institute of Quality Standard and Monitoring Technology for Agro-products, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Qiuquan Su
- Institute of Quality Standard and Monitoring Technology for Agro-products, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Institute of Quality Standard and Monitoring Technology for Agro-products, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Zefeng Cui
- Institute of Quality Standard and Monitoring Technology for Agro-products, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Qiumiao Yin
- Institute of Quality Standard and Monitoring Technology for Agro-products, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Agro-product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510640, China; Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment For Agro-products (Guangzhou), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Xu Wang
- Institute of Quality Standard and Monitoring Technology for Agro-products, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangzhou 510640, China; Key Laboratory of Testing and Evaluation for Agro-product Safety and Quality, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510640, China; Laboratory of Quality & Safety Risk Assessment For Agro-products (Guangzhou), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Guangzhou 510640, China.
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14
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Gruszecka D, Grandy J, Gionfriddo E, Singh V, Pawliszyn J. Direct immersion thin film solid phase microextraction of polychlorinated n-alkanes in cod liver oil. Food Chem 2021; 353:129244. [PMID: 33765598 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Revised: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
A thin film-solid phase microextraction (TF-SPME) method was developed to test for 5 individual polychlorinated n-alkanes (PCAs) from commercial cod liver oil samples. This was accomplished by preparing a novel aluminum supported, hydrophilic-lipophilic balance/polydimethylsiloxane (HLB/PDMS) TF-SPME device that enabled direct immersion extraction from fish oil. Matrix-matched calibration gave a linear range from 0.075 µg/g to 0.75 µg/g with method limits of quantitation (MLOQ) ranging from 0.07 µg/g to 0.217 µg/g in oil. Standard addition calibration was performed using other fish oils demonstrating comparable slope to the external calibration. As a proof of concept, four fish oil brands were tested for contaminants; 1,1,1,3-tetrachlorodecane, 1,2,9,10-tetrachlorodecane, 1,2,13,14-tetrachlorotetradecane, and 1,1,1,3,14,15-hexachloropentadecane were detected above the MLOQ but below the range provided by the Stockholm Convention. This method provides an effective approach for cleanup and preconcentration of PCAs from oily matrices using inexpensive, and reusable microextraction devices that limit environmental impact of the sample preparation protocol.
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Key Words
- 1,1,1,3-tetrachlorodecane PubChem CID: 44,154,637
- 1,10-dichlorodecane PubChem CID: 75,101
- 1,2,9,10-tetrachlorodecane PubChem CID: 15,842,085
- Chlorodecane PubChem CID: 13,848
- Cod liver oil
- Environmental contaminants
- Polychlorinated n-alkanes
- SPME
- TF-SPME
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominika Gruszecka
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Jonathan Grandy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Varoon Singh
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
| | - Janusz Pawliszyn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
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15
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Shi X, Qiu X, Chen Q, Chen S, Hu M, Rudich Y, Zhu T. Organic Iodine Compounds in Fine Particulate Matter from a Continental Urban Region: Insights into Secondary Formation in the Atmosphere. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:1508-1514. [PMID: 33443418 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c06703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric iodine chemistry can significantly affect the atmospheric oxidation capacity in certain regions. In such processes, particle-phase organic iodine compounds (OICs) are key reservoir species in their loss processes. However, their presence and formation mechanism remain unclear, especially in continental regions. Using gas chromatography and time-of-flight mass spectrometry coupled with both electron capture negative ionization and electron impact sources, this study systematically identified unknown OICs in 2-year samples of ambient fine particulate matter (PM2.5) collected in Beijing, an inland city. We determined the molecular structure of 37 unknown OICs, among which six species were confirmed by reference standards. The higher concentrations for ∑37OICs (median: 280 pg m-3; range: 49.0-770 pg m-3) measured in the heating season indicate intensive coal combustion sources of atmospheric iodine. 1-Iodo-2-naphthol and 4-iodoresorcinol are the most abundant species mainly from primary combustion emission and secondary formation, respectively. The detection of 2- and 4-iodoresorcinols, but not of iodine-substituted catechol/hydroquinone or 5-iodoresorcinol, suggests that they are formed via the electrophilic substitution of resorcinol by hypoiodous acid, a product of the reaction of iodine with ozone. This study reports isomeric information on OICs in continental urban PM2.5 and provides valuable evidence on the formation mechanism of OICs in ambient particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodi Shi
- State Key Joint Laboratory for Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
| | - Xinghua Qiu
- State Key Joint Laboratory for Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
| | - Qi Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory for Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
| | - Shiyi Chen
- State Key Joint Laboratory for Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
| | - Min Hu
- State Key Joint Laboratory for Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
| | - Yinon Rudich
- Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel
| | - Tong Zhu
- State Key Joint Laboratory for Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
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16
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Yuan B, Tay JH, Padilla-Sánchez JA, Papadopoulou E, Haug LS, de Wit CA. Human Exposure to Chlorinated Paraffins via Inhalation and Dust Ingestion in a Norwegian Cohort. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:1145-1154. [PMID: 33400865 PMCID: PMC7880561 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c05891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Very-short- (vSCCPs, C6-9), short- (SCCPs, C10-13), medium- (MCCPs, C14-17), and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs, C>17) were analyzed in indoor air and dust collected from the living rooms and personal 24 h air of 61 adults from a Norwegian cohort. Relatively volatile CPs, i.e., vSCCPs and SCCPs, showed a greater tendency to partition from settled indoor dust to paired stationary indoor air from the same living rooms than MCCPs and LCCPs, with median logarithmic dust-air partition ratios of 1.3, 2.9, 4.1, and 5.4, respectively. Using the stationary indoor air and settled indoor dust concentrations, the combined median daily exposures to vSCCPs, SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs were estimated to be 0.074, 2.7, 0.93, and 0.095 ng/kg bw/d, respectively. Inhalation was the predominant exposure pathway for vSCCPs (median 99%) and SCCPs (59%), while dust ingestion was the predominant exposure pathway for MCCPs (75%) and LCCPs (95%). The estimated inhalation exposure to total CPs was ∼ 5 times higher when the personal 24 h air results were used rather than the corresponding stationary indoor air results in 13 paired samples, indicating that exposure situations other than living rooms contributed significantly to the overall personal exposure. The 95th percentile exposure for CPs did not exceed the reference dose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yuan
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Joo Hui Tay
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Eleni Papadopoulou
- Section
for Environmental Exposure and Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public
Health, NO-0213 Oslo, Norway
| | - Line Småstuen Haug
- Section
for Environmental Exposure and Epidemiology, Norwegian Institute of Public
Health, NO-0213 Oslo, Norway
| | - Cynthia A. de Wit
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
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17
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Optimization and validation of an analytical method for the quantification of short- and medium-chained chlorinated paraffins in food by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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18
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Knobloch MC, Schinkel L, Schilling I, Kohler HPE, Lienemann P, Bleiner D, Heeb NV. Transformation of short-chain chlorinated paraffins by the bacterial haloalkane dehalogenase LinB - Formation of mono- and di-hydroxylated metabolites. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 262:128288. [PMID: 33182101 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.128288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are listed as persistent organic pollutants (POPs) under the Stockholm Convention. Such substances are toxic, bioaccumulating, transported over long distances and degrade slowly in the environment. Certain bacterial strains of the Sphingomonadacea family are able to degrade POPs, such as hexachlorocyclohexanes (HCHs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs). The haloalkane dehalogenase LinB, expressed in certain Sphingomonadacea, is able to catalyze the transformation of haloalkanes to hydroxylated compounds. Therefore, LinB is a promising candidate for conversion of SCCPs. Hence, a mixture of chlorinated tridecanes was exposed in vitro to LinB, which was obtained through heterologous expression in Escherichia coli. Liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was used to analyze chlorinated tridecanes and their transformation products. A chloride-enhanced soft ionization method, which favors the formation of chloride adducts [M+Cl]- without fragmentation, was applied. Mathematical deconvolution was used to distinguish interfering mass spectra of paraffinic, mono-olefinic and di-olefinic compounds. Several mono- and di-hydroxylated products including paraffinic, mono-olefinic and di-olefinic compounds were found after LinB exposure. Mono- (rt = 5.9-6.9 min) and di-hydroxylated (rt = 3.2-4.5 min) compounds were separated from starting material (rt = 7.7-8.5 min) by reversed phase LC. Chlorination degrees of chlorinated tridecanes increased during LinB-exposure from nCl = 8.80 to 9.07, indicating a preferential transformation of lower chlorinated (Cl<9) tridecanes. Thus, LinB indeed catalyzed a dehalohydroxylation of chlorinated tridecanes, tridecenes and tridecadienes. The observed hydroxylated compounds are relevant CP transformation products whose environmental and toxicological effects should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco C Knobloch
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland.
| | - Lena Schinkel
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology Eawag, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Iris Schilling
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology Eawag, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Hans-Peter E Kohler
- Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Research and Technology Eawag, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Peter Lienemann
- Zürich University of Applied Sciences ZHAW, Einsiedlerstrasse 3, 8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland; Department of Chemistry, University of Zürich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Norbert V Heeb
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Swiss Federal Institute for Materials Science and Technology Empa, Überlandstrasse 129, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
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19
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de Wit CA, Bossi R, Dietz R, Dreyer A, Faxneld S, Garbus SE, Hellström P, Koschorreck J, Lohmann N, Roos A, Sellström U, Sonne C, Treu G, Vorkamp K, Yuan B, Eulaers I. Organohalogen compounds of emerging concern in Baltic Sea biota: Levels, biomagnification potential and comparisons with legacy contaminants. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 144:106037. [PMID: 32835922 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2020.106037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
While new chemicals have replaced major toxic legacy contaminants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), knowledge of their current levels and biomagnification potential in Baltic Sea biota is lacking. Therefore, a suite of chemicals of emerging concern, including organophosphate esters (OPEs), short-chain, medium-chain and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs, MCCPs, LCCPs), halogenated flame retardants (HFRs), and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), were analysed in blue mussel (Mytilus edulis), viviparous eelpout (Zoarces viviparus), Atlantic herring (Clupea harengus), grey seal (Halichoerus grypus), harbor seal (Phoca vitulina), harbor porpoise (Phocoena phocoena), common eider (Somateria mollissima), common guillemot (Uria aalge) and white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) from the Baltic Proper, sampled between 2006 and 2016. Results were benchmarked with existing data for legacy contaminants. The mean concentrations for ΣOPEs ranged from 57 to 550 ng g-1 lipid weight (lw), for ΣCPs from 110 to 640 ng g-1 lw for ΣHFRs from 0.42 to 80 ng g-1 lw, and for ΣPFAS from 1.1 to 450 ng g-1 wet weight. Perfluoro-4-ethylcyclohexanesulfonate (PFECHS) was detected in most species. Levels of OPEs, CPs and HFRs were generally similar or higher than those of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and/or hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD). OPE, CP and HFR concentrations were also similar to PCBs and DDTs in blue mussel, viviparous eelpout and Atlantic herring. In marine mammals and birds, PCB and DDT concentrations remained orders of magnitude higher than those of OPEs, CPs, HFRs and PFAS. Predator-prey ratios for individual OPEs (0.28-3.9) and CPs (0.40-5.0) were similar or somewhat lower than those seen for BDE-47 (5.0-29) and HBCDD (2.4-13). Ratios for individual HFRs (0.010-37) and PFAS (0.15-47) were, however, of the same order of magnitude as seen for p,p'-DDE (4.7-66) and CB-153 (31-190), indicating biomagnification potential for many of the emerging contaminants. Lack of toxicity data, including for complex mixtures, makes it difficult to assess the risks emerging contaminants pose. Their occurence and biomagnification potential should trigger risk management measures, particularly for MCCPs, HFRs and PFAS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cynthia A de Wit
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Svante Arrheniusvägen 8, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Rossana Bossi
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Rune Dietz
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | | | - Suzanne Faxneld
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring, Swedish Museum of Natural History, PO Box 50007, SE-10405 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Svend Erik Garbus
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Peter Hellström
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring, Swedish Museum of Natural History, PO Box 50007, SE-10405 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Jan Koschorreck
- Umweltbundesamt (UBA), Bismarckplatz 1, DE-14139 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Nina Lohmann
- Eurofins GfA Lab Service GmbH, Neuländer Kamp 1a, DE-21079 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Anna Roos
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring, Swedish Museum of Natural History, PO Box 50007, SE-10405 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Ulla Sellström
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Svante Arrheniusvägen 8, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Christian Sonne
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Gabriele Treu
- Umweltbundesamt (UBA), Section Chemicals, Wörlitzer Platz 1, DE-06844 Dessau-Roßlau, Germany.
| | - Katrin Vorkamp
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
| | - Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Svante Arrheniusvägen 8, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Igor Eulaers
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark.
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Mézière M, Krätschmer K, Pe Rkons I, Zacs D, Marchand P, Dervilly G, Le Bizec B, Schächtele A, Cariou R, Vetter W. Addressing Main Challenges Regarding Short- and Medium-Chain Chlorinated Paraffin Analysis Using GC/ECNI-MS and LC/ESI-MS Methods. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2020; 31:1885-1895. [PMID: 32872783 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.0c00155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The risk assessment of chlorinated paraffins (CPs), chemicals of widespread industrial use, is struggling without standardized analytical methods to obtain reliable occurrence data. Indeed, scientists face analytical challenges that hinder the comparability of analytical methods, among them uncontrolled ionization efficiency and lack of quantification standards. In this study, our goal was to investigate potential issues faced when comparing data from different mass spectrometry platforms and quantification methods. First, the injection of the same set of single-chain length standards in three different instrumental mass spectrometry set-ups (liquid chromatography-electrospray-Orbitrap (LC/ESI-HRMS), liquid chromatography-electrospray-time-of-flight (LC/ESI-MS), and gas chromatography-electron capture negative ion-Orbitrap (GC/ECNI-HRMS)) revealed a shift of homologue response patterns even in-between LC/ESI-based set-ups, which was more pronounced for CPs of low chlorination degree. This finding emphasizes the need for a comprehensive description of instrument parameters when publishing occurrence data. Second, the quantification of a data set of samples with four quantification methods showed that quantification at the sum SCCP and MCCP levels presented good comparability, while quantification at the homologue level remained unsatisfactory. In light of those results, we suggest that (i) response pattern comparison should only be performed between similar instrumental set-ups, (ii) experimental chlorination degrees should be used when quantifying according to the %Cl (instead of those provided by the suppliers), and (iii) concentration results should be expressed as the sum of SCCPs and MCCPs primarily, with an indication on the match between samples and quantification standards (for example their chlorine content).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kerstin Krätschmer
- EURL for Halogenated POPs, c/o State Institute for Chemical and Veterinary Analysis of Food (CVUA) Freiburg, Bissierstraße 5, 79114 Freiburg, Germany
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstraße 28, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Alexander Schächtele
- EURL for Halogenated POPs, c/o State Institute for Chemical and Veterinary Analysis of Food (CVUA) Freiburg, Bissierstraße 5, 79114 Freiburg, Germany
| | | | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry (170b), Garbenstraße 28, 70599 Stuttgart, Germany
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21
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Heeb NV, Iten S, Schinkel L, Knobloch M, Sprengel J, Lienemann P, Bleiner D, Vetter W. Characterization of synthetic single-chain CP standard materials - Removal of interfering side products. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 255:126959. [PMID: 32388263 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The photolytic chlorination of n-alkanes in presence of sulfuryl chloride (SO2Cl2) was explored to produce new standard materials. Five mixtures of chlorinated tetradecanes were synthesized with chlorination degrees (mCl,EA) varying from 43.7% to 59.4% (m/m) based on elemental analysis. Chlorine-enhanced negative chemical ionization mass spectrometry (CE-NCI-MS) forcing the formation of chloride-adduct ions [M+Cl]- was applied to characterize these materials which all contained tetra-to deca-chlorinated paraffins. Deconvolution of respective mass spectra revealed the presence of chlorinated olefins (COs). CO levels were highest in materials, which were exposed longest. All synthesized materials also contained two classes of polar impurities, tentatively assigned as sulfite- and sulfate-diesters with molecular formulas of C14H28-xO3SClx (x = 1-4) and C14H28-xO4SClx (x = 3-6), respectively. MS data were in accordance with the proposed structures but further work is needed to deduce their constitutions. These compounds are thermolabile and were not detected with GC-MS methods. We could remove these sulfur-containing impurities from the CPs with normal-phase liquid chromatography. In conclusion, single-chain CP materials were synthesized via chlorination of n-alkanes with sulfuryl chloride, but these materials contained reactive side products which should be removed to gain non-reactive and stable CP materials suitable as standards and for fate and toxicity studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert V Heeb
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
| | - Silvan Iten
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; ZHAW, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Institute of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Reidbach, CH-8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Lena Schinkel
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Marco Knobloch
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; University of Zürich, Department of Chemistry, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Jannik Sprengel
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Garbenstrasse 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Peter Lienemann
- ZHAW, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Institute of Chemistry and Biological Chemistry, Reidbach, CH-8820, Wädenswil, Switzerland
| | - Davide Bleiner
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology,Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; University of Zürich, Department of Chemistry, Winterthurerstrasse 190, CH-8057 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Garbenstrasse 28, D-70599 Stuttgart, Germany
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22
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Yuan B, Lysak DH, Soong R, Haddad A, Hisatsune A, Moser A, Golotvin S, Argyropoulos D, Simpson AJ, Muir DCG. Chlorines Are Not Evenly Substituted in Chlorinated Paraffins: A Predicted NMR Pattern Matching Framework for Isomeric Discrimination in Complex Contaminant Mixtures. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY LETTERS 2020; 7:496-503. [PMID: 32685603 PMCID: PMC7365351 DOI: 10.1021/acs.estlett.0c00244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) can be mixtures of nearly a half-million possible isomers. Despite the extensive use of CPs, their isomer composition and effects on the environment remain poorly understood. Here, we reveal the isomeric distributions of nine CP mixtures with single-chain lengths (C14/15) and varying degrees of chlorination. The molar distribution of C n H2n+2-m Cl m in each mixture was determined using high-resolution mass spectrometry (MS). Next, the mixtures were analyzed by applying both one-dimensional 1H, 13C and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. Due to substantially overlapping signals in the experimental NMR spectra, direct assignment of individual isomers was not possible. As such, a new NMR spectral matching approach that used massive NMR databases predicted by a neural network algorithm to provide the top 100 most likely structural matches was developed. The top 100 isomers appear to be an adequate representation of the overall mixture. Their modeled physicochemical and toxicity parameters agree with previous experimental results. Chlorines are not evenly distributed in any of the CP mixtures and show a general preference at the third carbon. The approach described here can play a key role in understanding of complex isomeric mixtures such as CPs that cannot be resolved by MS alone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yuan
- Department
of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Daniel Henryk Lysak
- Environmental
NMR Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M1C 1A4
| | - Ronald Soong
- Environmental
NMR Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M1C 1A4
| | - Andrew Haddad
- Environmental
NMR Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M1C 1A4
| | - Arika Hisatsune
- Environmental
NMR Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M1C 1A4
| | - Arvin Moser
- ACD/Labs, 8 King Street East, Toronto, ON, Canada M5C 1B5
| | | | | | - Andre J. Simpson
- Environmental
NMR Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada M1C 1A4
| | - Derek C. G. Muir
- Canada
Centre for Inland Waters, Environment and
Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, Canada L7S 1A1
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23
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van Mourik LM, Wang X, Paxman C, Leonards PEG, Wania F, de Boer J, Mueller JF. Spatial variation of short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in ambient air across Australia. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 261:114141. [PMID: 32062093 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Atmospheric levels of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) at five remote, six rural and four urban sites in Australia were measured using XAD-2 passive air samplers (XAD-PAS). While long-chain CP (LCCP, C>17) levels were below method detection limits (MDLs), short-chain CPs (SCCPs, C10-13) and, for the first time, medium-chain CPs (MCCPs, C14-17) and CPs with a carbon chain length of nine (CP-C9) were found at many sites (88%, 81% and 88%, respectively) across the Australian continent, representing a range of environmental conditions. Applying preliminary sampling rates of the XAD-PAS for CPs, gaseous CP levels in Australian air were <MDL-1.3 and <MDL-1.8 ng/m3 for ΣSCCPs and ΣMCCPs, respectively, with a significant decreasing trend from more densely to less densely populated areas. Atmospheric median levels in this study (0.37 and 0.47 ng/m3 for SCCPs and MCCPs, respectively) were at the lower end of the median range (0.32-10 and 3.0-4.2 ng/m3 for SCCPs and MCCPs, respectively) reported for CPs at predominantly urban or industrial sites elsewhere (apart from China and extremely remote sites such as Antarctica). Principal component analysis matched the SCCP and MCCP congener group patterns in samples with those found in commercial mixtures, indicating a prevalence of less chlorinated congener groups in the Australian atmosphere. Information about the Australian production, use and disposal of CPs as well as their levels in other environmental matrices, including humans, is needed for assessing their emissions, behaviour, fate and potential exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise M van Mourik
- The University of Queensland, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Qld, Australia; Vrije Universiteit, Department Environment and Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Xianyu Wang
- The University of Queensland, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Qld, Australia
| | - Chris Paxman
- The University of Queensland, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Qld, Australia
| | - Pim E G Leonards
- Vrije Universiteit, Department Environment and Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Frank Wania
- University of Toronto Scarborough, Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit, Department Environment and Health, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- The University of Queensland, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Qld, Australia
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24
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Wang K, Gao L, Zhu S, Cui L, Qiao L, Xu C, Huang D, Zheng M. Spatial distributions and homolog profiles of chlorinated nonane paraffins, and short and medium chain chlorinated paraffins in soils from Yunnan, China. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 247:125855. [PMID: 31935577 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.125855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Revised: 01/02/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
To preliminarily investigate the occurrence, spatial distributions, homolog compositions, and ecological risks of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) in Yunnan, China, 110 soil samples were collected from an area part of Yunnan, representative of the whole Yunnan area, where had similar characteristics to most parts of Yunnan and 22 pooled soil samples were analyzed for 50 CP congener groups (C9-17Cl5-10). The chlorinated nonane paraffin (C9-CP), short chain (SCCP), and medium chain chlorinated paraffin (MCCP) concentrations in soil samples were 8-109 ng/g (average 39 ng/g), 79-948 ng/g (average 348 ng/g), and 20-1206 ng/g (average 229 ng/g), respectively. The C9-CP homologs contributed 5%-16% of the C9-13-CP concentrations in soils. No significant correlation was found between CP concentrations and the total organic carbon content (P > 0.05). The CP levels in soils from Yunnan were at a medium level compared with those in other areas worldwide. Human activity and atmosphere deposition would influence the levels and spatial distributions of CPs in this area. The concentrations of CPs in east area were higher than those in west area. C10Cl6-7 were the major SCCP congeners and C14Cl6-7 were the major MCCP congeners. Principal component analysis indicated that SCCPs and MCCPs came from different sources. A preliminary risk assessment indicated that these concentrations of CPs in soil from Yunnan do not pose a significant ecological risk for soil organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kunran Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Lirong Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Shuai Zhu
- National Research Center for Geoanalysis, Beijing, 100037, China
| | - Lili Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Lin Qiao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Chi Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Di Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
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25
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Optimized characterization of short-, medium, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins in liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2020; 1619:460927. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2020.460927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/24/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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26
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van Mourik LM, Toms LML, He C, Banks A, Hobson P, Leonards PEG, de Boer J, Mueller JF. Evaluating age and temporal trends of chlorinated paraffins in pooled serum collected from males in Australia between 2004 and 2015. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 244:125574. [PMID: 32050349 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.125574] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2019] [Revised: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 12/06/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are high production volume chemicals of which some show resistance to environmental degradation, long-rang transport, bioaccumulation and toxicity potential. Information regarding their presence in humans is limited, including their human bioaccumulation potential. The present study aimed to evaluate CP levels in human serum from Australia in order to better understand their exposure and current pollution status as well as trends associated with age and time between 2004 and 2015. For this, we selected a male sub-group of the Australian population under 60 years old (n = 16 pools, total 1600 serum samples). While long-chain CP (C18-20) and most short-chain CP (C10-13, SCCPs) levels were below method detection limits (MDL), medium-chain CPs (C14-17, MCCPs) were found in most serum samples (detection frequency 94%) as well as CPs with a carbon chain length of nine (detection frequency 76%). The levels of ΣSCCPs and ΣMCCPs ranged from <MDL-140 and <MDL-520 ng/g lipid weight (lw), respectively, with a median value of 97 ng/g lw for SCCPs and 190 ng/g lw for MCCPs. Analysis by age stratification did not identify any trends but an increase of a factor of 2 in MCCPs levels was observed over time (p < 0.05). Plotting the MCCP/SCCP ratio of all available data in humans over time showed also an increasing trend, including for China. The reported levels are relatively low considering the levels reported in environmental media from Australia such which raises the question to what extent CPs accumulate in humans. Future studies on this aspect are required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise M van Mourik
- The University of Queensland, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Queensland, Australia; Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Leisa-Maree L Toms
- The University of Queensland, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Queensland, Australia; School of Public Health and Social Work and Institute of Health and Biomedical Innovation, Queensland University of Technology, Kelvin Grove, 4059, Australia
| | - Chang He
- The University of Queensland, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Queensland, Australia
| | - Andrew Banks
- The University of Queensland, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Queensland, Australia
| | - Peter Hobson
- Sullivan and Nicolaides Pathology, 24 Hurworth Street, Bowen Hills 4006, Queensland, Australia
| | - Pim E G Leonards
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jacob de Boer
- Vrije Universiteit, Department of Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Jochen F Mueller
- The University of Queensland, Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Queensland, Australia
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27
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Du X, Yuan B, Zhou Y, de Wit CA, Zheng Z, Yin G. Chlorinated Paraffins in Two Snake Species from the Yangtze River Delta: Tissue Distribution and Biomagnification. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:2753-2762. [PMID: 32036653 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Very-short, short-, medium-, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (vSCCPs, SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs, respectively) were analyzed in different tissues of the terrestrial short-tailed mamushi (Gloydius brevicaudus) and the semi-aquatic red-backed rat snake (Elaphe rufodorsata) from the Yangtze River Delta, China. The total CP concentrations in liver, muscle, and adipose tissues in the two snake species were in the range of 2500-24 000, 4900-48 000, and 12-630 ng/g lw, respectively. Tissue burdens indicated that vSCCPs (C6-9) and SCCPs (C10-13) preferentially distributed to snake liver, while adipose was an important storage site and sink of MCCPs (C14-17) and LCCPs (C>18). On a lipid weight basis, vSCCPs and SCCPs were found in highest concentrations in red-backed rat snake liver and MCCPs and LCCPs in muscle, whereas for short-tailed mamushi, all CP groups were predominant in muscle, probably reflecting ecosystem/food web differences. Moreover, vSCCPs, SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs were found to be biomagnified from black-spotted frogs to red-backed rat snakes with mean (maximum) biomagnification factors of 2.2 (3.4), 1.9 (3.7), 1.8 (2.8), and 1.7 (4.5), respectively. This is the first field study of biomagnification potential involving vSCCPs and LCCPs and highlights the need to include all CPs in studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Du
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 200092 Shanghai, China
| | - Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Yihui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 200092 Shanghai, China
| | - Cynthia A de Wit
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ziye Zheng
- Department of Chemistry, Umeå University, SE-901 87 Umeå, Sweden
| | - Ge Yin
- Shimadzu (China) Company, LTD, 200233 Shanghai, China
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28
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Li Y, Chen W, Kong W, Liu J, Schnoor JL, Jiang G. Transformation of 1,1,1,3,8,10,10,10-octachlorodecane in air phase increased by phytogenic volatile organic compounds of pumpkin seedlings. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 704:135455. [PMID: 31791777 PMCID: PMC7029796 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Short chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are widely distributed persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Airborne chlorodecanes were hypothesized to be transformed by reactive phytogenic volatile organic compounds (PVOCs) in our previous work. To test this hypothesis, PVOCs of pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima x C. moschata) were collected and reacted with 1,1,1,3,8,10,10,10-octachlorodecane in the air phase of a sealed glass bottle under illumination for 10 days (reaction system I, simulating atmospheric reaction conditions with PVOCs). The reaction control group (reaction system II) was set at the same conditions but only had chlorodecane (without PVOCs) inside the bottle. Transformation of SCCPs in the air phase of reaction control group was unexpectedly found. Results showed that 1,1,1,3,8,10,10,10-octachlorodecane was transformed to a great extent to C10Cl5-8, C9Cl6-8, and C8Cl7-8 in the air phase after 10-d illumination in both with and without the presence of PVOCs, which is explained by carbon chain decomposition, dechlorination and chlorine rearrangement products of the parent SCCP. Those transformation processes were increased to some extent by the PVOCs from pumpkin seedlings. This study provides the first experimental data on atmospheric transformation of SCCPs and also the first evidence that plant emissions (PVOCs) can increase the transformation of SCCPs in air under light and experimental conditions. It provides new insight into the potential transformation and fate of CPs in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanlin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA; School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Weifang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Wenqian Kong
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jiyan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
| | - Jerald L Schnoor
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Zheng L, Lian L, Nie J, Song Y, Yan S, Yin D, Song W. Development of an ammonium chloride-enhanced thermal-assisted-ESI LC-HRMS method for the characterization of chlorinated paraffins. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 255:113303. [PMID: 31585406 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.113303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Simultaneous quantification of short-, medium-, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (CPs) in environmental matrices is challenging and has received much attention from environmental chemists. In this study, ammonium-chloride-enhanced liquid chromatography coupled with high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) was developed for the first time to quantify CPs in sediments and aqueous samples. Three ionization sources, including atmospheric pressure chemical ionization (APCI), electrospray ionization (ESI), and thermal-assisted-ESI, were employed to examine the performance of ammonium chloride as the chloride ion supply reagent in comparison with traditional chloride ion supply reagent, dichloromethane. Ammonium chloride can be easily used with reversed-phase liquid chromatography (LC), whereas dichloromethane is not compatible with aqueous LC mobile phase. Furthermore, other anion-supply reagents, such as ammonium formate, ammonium acetate, and ammonium bromide, were also tested. It was concluded that the adducts of the CPs with the anions were reversible and could partially dissociate into deprotonated CP ions. The yield of deprotonated CP ions was associated with the gas-phase basicity of the deprotonated CP ions and the corresponding anions. Furthermore, collision-induced dissociation curves were drawn to quantify the stability of anionic CP adducts. The ammonium-chloride-enhanced LC-HRMS was further employed for identifying CPs in sediment samples and coupled with an online SPE method for detecting CPs in aqueous samples. This study may significantly contribute to the qualification and quantification of CPs in environmental matrices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li Zheng
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, PR China
| | - Lushi Lian
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, PR China
| | - Jianxin Nie
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, PR China
| | - Yue Song
- Agilent Technologies, Inc., 1350 North Sichuan Road, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Shuwen Yan
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, 1515 North Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Daqiang Yin
- Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, 1515 North Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200080, PR China
| | - Weihua Song
- Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200438, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, 1515 North Zhongshan Road, Shanghai, 200080, PR China.
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Perkons I, Pasecnaja E, Zacs D. The impact of baking on chlorinated paraffins: Characterization of C10–C17 chlorinated paraffins in oven-baked pastry products and unprocessed pastry dough by HPLC–ESI–Q–TOF–MS. Food Chem 2019; 298:125100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.125100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Chibwe L, Myers AL, De Silva AO, Reiner EJ, Jobst K, Muir D, Yuan B. C 12-30 α-Bromo-Chloro "Alkenes": Characterization of a Poorly Identified Flame Retardant and Potential Environmental Implications. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:10835-10844. [PMID: 31441649 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Bromo-chloro alkenes (Br-Cl PXAs) have been used for over 30 years as flame retardants and are listed on several national chemical inventories. Very little publicly available information is available on Br-Cl PXAs, and thus preliminary ecological risk screening is challenging due to the lack of basic information such as molecular structure and associated physicochemical properties. Due to their likely similarity with chlorinated paraffins (CPs), Br-Cl PXAs may pose a similar environmental hazard. Several structural databases list such substances as "alkenes", although the industrial synthesis involves halogenation of linear alpha-olefins and would be expected to produce linear alkanes. In this study, a combination of high-resolution separation and mass spectrometric techniques were used to characterize a Br-Cl PXA industrial technical product, C12-30 bromo-chloro alpha-alkenes (CAS RN 68527-01-5). The results show this product is dominated by C18 carbon chain lengths, substituted with 3-7 chlorine atoms and 1-3 bromine atoms on an alkane chain. Long-chain C18 chlorinated paraffins are also present, although they represent a relatively minor component. Experimental log KOW (6.9 to 8.6) and estimated log KOA (10.5 to 13.5) and log KAW (-5.1 to -0.6) partition coefficients suggest that this chemical will behave similarly to medium- and long-chain CPs as well as other persistent organic pollutants, such as highly chlorinated pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls. The results of this study provide an initial step toward understanding the environmental behavior and persistence of Br-Cl PXAs, highlighting the need for further assessment and re-evaluation of the current structure(s) assigned to these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Chibwe
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division , Environment and Climate Change Canada , Burlington , Ontario L7S 1A1 , Canada
| | - Anne L Myers
- Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks , Toronto , Ontario M9P 3V6 , Canada
| | - Amila O De Silva
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division , Environment and Climate Change Canada , Burlington , Ontario L7S 1A1 , Canada
| | - Eric J Reiner
- Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks , Toronto , Ontario M9P 3V6 , Canada
| | - Karl Jobst
- Ministry of the Environment, Conservation and Parks , Toronto , Ontario M9P 3V6 , Canada
| | - Derek Muir
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division , Environment and Climate Change Canada , Burlington , Ontario L7S 1A1 , Canada
| | - Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry , Stockholm University , Stockholm SE-10691 , Sweden
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van Mourik LM, Lava R, O'Brien J, Leonards PEG, de Boer J, Ricci M. The underlying challenges that arise when analysing short-chain chlorinated paraffins in environmental matrices. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1610:460550. [PMID: 31547958 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.460550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2019] [Revised: 09/10/2019] [Accepted: 09/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
As short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are listed on several monitoring programs, validated methods are essential. However, their complexity and the lack of commercially available certified reference materials (RMs) hinder a proper validation of methods. Instead, one method is usually 'validated' by evaluating performances and results of spiked materials with that of one other method, which could easily lead to unreliable results. This study evaluated four analytical methods with different principles (i.e. comprehensive two dimensional GC coupled to a micro electron capture detector, developed for this study, chloride enhanced atmospheric pressure chemical ionization triple quadrupole time of flight MS (APCI-QToF-HRMS), GC coupled to an electron capture negative ion low resolution MS (GC-ECNI-LRMS) and carbon skeleton GC-MS), investigated the comparability in SCCP determination in spiked and naturally contaminated samples and determined SCCP amounts in candidate RMs for possible certification. The results cast doubt on the use of the most commonly applied method (i.e. GC-ECNI-LRMS), as well as using spiked materials for method validation. The APCI-QToF-HRMS method was found most promising as it achieves the required MS resolution (>21,000), is relatively fast and can detect also other CPs. The suitable identified SCCP levels in the candidate RMs and the agreement in results between the methods bring the first certification of a RM for SCCPs within reach.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M van Mourik
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Qld, Australia; Department of Environment and Health (E&H), Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - R Lava
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Retieseweg 111, 2440 Geel, Belgium
| | - J O'Brien
- Queensland Alliance for Environmental Health Science (QAEHS), The University of Queensland, 20 Cornwall Street, Woolloongabba, 4102, Qld, Australia
| | - P E G Leonards
- Department of Environment and Health (E&H), Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - J de Boer
- Department of Environment and Health (E&H), Vrije Universiteit, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081 HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - M Ricci
- European Commission, Joint Research Centre, Retieseweg 111, 2440 Geel, Belgium
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Zhou Y, de Wit CA, Yin G, Du X, Yuan B. Shorter than short-chain: Very short-chain chlorinated paraffins (vSCCPs) found in wildlife from the Yangtze River Delta. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2019; 130:104955. [PMID: 31260927 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.104955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 06/21/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Very short-chain chlorinated paraffins (vSCCPs, C6-9) occurred in 94% of wildlife samples from the Yangtze River Delta (YRD), China, with CnClm comparable to that of a local CP product, CP-52. Therefore, we determined the content of vSCCPs in CP-52 using a mathematical deconvolution technique. Then with CP-52 and several other reference standards, vSCCPs together with short-, medium-, and long-chain CPs were quantified in 21 wildlife species from an artificial wetland ecosystem and a freshwater ecosystem in the YRD. Concentrations of vSCCPs ranged from 2.6 to 8400 ng/g lipid. These concentrations were 1.2-380 fold lower than SCCPs, but were significantly correlated with those of SCCPs. vSCCP concentrations were comparable to or higher than reported for brominated flame retardants in the same samples. Bioaccumulation tendency of vSCCPs was identified in two benthic species, indicating congener-specific accumulation of vSCCPs in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yihui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Cynthia A de Wit
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ge Yin
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden; Shimadzu (China) Co. LTD., Shanghai 200233, China
| | - Xinyu Du
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden.
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Zhou X, Wu H, Huang X, Hang F, Luo H. Development a simple and rapid HPLC-ESI-Q-TOF/MS method for determination of short- and medium- chain chlorinated paraffins in human serum. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2019; 1126-1127:121722. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2019.121722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 07/04/2019] [Accepted: 07/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Castro M, Sobek A, Yuan B, Breitholtz M. Bioaccumulation Potential of CPs in Aquatic Organisms: Uptake and Depuration in Daphnia magna. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:9533-9541. [PMID: 31321968 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are industrial chemicals, subdivided into three categories: short chain (SCCPs), medium chain (MCCPs), and long chain (LCCPs) chlorinated paraffins. SCCPs are currently restricted in Europe and North America. MC and LCCPs are being used as substitution products, but there is a knowledge gap concerning their bioaccumulation potential in aquatic organisms. In this work, we performed laboratory bioconcentration (passive uptake) and bioaccumulation (including dietary uptake) experiments with Daphnia magna using five different CP technical substances. All tested CP technical substances were bioaccumulative in D. magna, with log BCF and log BAF values ranging between 6.7-7.0 and 6.5-7.0 (L kg lipid-1), respectively. An increase in carbon chain length and an increase in chlorine content (% w/w) of the CP technical substances had significant positive effects on the log BCF and log BAF values. For the different CP technical substances, 50% depuration was achieved after 2 to 10 h when D. magna were transferred to clean media. Our results show that SC, MC, and LCCPs are (very)bioaccumulative in aquatic organisms. We believe these data can aid the ongoing policy discussion concerning the environmental risk posed by CPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mafalda Castro
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Anna Sobek
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Magnus Breitholtz
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
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Kalinowska K, Lenartowicz P, Namieśnik J, Marć M. Analytical procedures for short chain chlorinated paraffins determination - How to make them greener? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 671:309-323. [PMID: 30928760 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2019] [Revised: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The aim of the following paper was to gather current scientific information about the analytical protocols dedicated to measuring the content level of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) in various types of environmental samples. Moreover, the data about the basic validation parameters of applied procedures for SCCPs determination are listed. The main issue which is highlighted in the paper is the possibility of the application of green analytical chemistry (GAC) principals in the SCCPs measuring process to reduce the environmental impact of the applied methodology. Analytical methods dedicated to SCCPs determination contain a significant number of steps and require advanced analytical equipment during the quantitative and qualitative analysis. In addition, there is a substantial issue associated with the reliability of the obtained results, especially in the case of the quantification of individual SCCPs in the studied samples. Due to this fact, the paper attempts to discuss the various stages of the analytical procedure, in which appropriate changes in the formula or equipment solutions might be introduced to ensure a better quality of the analytical results, as well as to meet the requirements of the philosophy of green analytical chemistry. The most important case which concerns this subject is finding an optimal consensus between the economic and logistic aspects and the quality and "greenness" of the analytical procedure employed in SCCPs determination process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaja Kalinowska
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Paweł Lenartowicz
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Jacek Namieśnik
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland
| | - Mariusz Marć
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdansk University of Technology, Gdansk, Poland; Department of Analytical and Ecological Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Opole University, Opole, Poland.
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Li Y, Hou X, Chen W, Liu J, Zhou Q, Schnoor JL, Jiang G. Carbon Chain Decomposition of Short Chain Chlorinated Paraffins Mediated by Pumpkin and Soybean Seedlings. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:6765-6772. [PMID: 31099560 PMCID: PMC6931393 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Short chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) are a group of complex emerging persistent organic pollutants. In this study, the uptake, translocation, and transformation of four constitutionally defined SCCP isomers were studied using whole pumpkin ( Cucurbita maxima × C. moschata) and soybean ( Glycine max L. Merrill) seedlings via hydroponic exposure. Results showed that the daughter SCCPs were C10Cl5-8 and C11-13Cl5-6. The metabolic transformation of all tested isomers included dechlorination and chlorine rearrangement. In addition, carbon chain decomposition products were found for isomers with trichlorinated carbon atoms (CCl3-groups) in both pumpkin and soybean seedlings. This study provides the first evidence of carbon chain decomposition of SCCPs in whole plants, and it suggests new metabolism pathways of SCCPs in the environment. The influence of carbon chain length and degree of chlorination of SCCPs on their fate and behavior within different plant species were also investigated. Bioaccumulation of SCCPs in pumpkin and soybean increased with increasing carbon chain length and degree of chlorination. In comparison, soybean translocated and degraded parent SCCPs faster and to a greater extent than pumpkin, but pumpkin accumulated parent SCCPs to a greater extent than soybean. After 10 days exposure, less than 4% of the initial mass of exposed chemicals remained in solution of exposure groups. The parent chemicals accumulated in roots ranging from 23.6% to 59.9% for pumpkin and 1.98% to 54.5% for soybean and in stems ranging from 0.7% to 3.81% for pumpkin and 0.50% to 2.54% for soybean. These results give new perspectives on the transport, transformation, and fate of SCCPs in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanlin Li
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
- School of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
| | - Xingwang Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Weifang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jiyan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Qunfang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jerald L. Schnoor
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, P.O. Box 2871, Beijing 100085, China
- College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
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Du X, Yuan B, Zhou Y, Zheng Z, Wu Y, Qiu Y, Zhao J, Yin G. Tissue-Specific Accumulation, Sexual Difference, and Maternal Transfer of Chlorinated Paraffins in Black-Spotted Frogs. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:4739-4746. [PMID: 30977643 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
The restriction on usage of short-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) under Stockholm Convention may promote the production and application of medium chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) and long chain chlorinated paraffins (LCCPs) as substitutes. This study focused on the tissue-specific exposure to SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs in black-spotted frog, a prevalent amphibian species in the Yangtze River Delta, China. The total CP concentrations in frog liver, muscle, and egg samples ranged of 35-1200, 6.3-97, and 6.8-300 ng/g wet weight (ww), respectively. Livers and eggs contained primary SCCPs (on average 78%) while MCCPs (43%) together with SCCPs (41%) were dominant in muscles. A significantly negative correlation was observed between hepatosomatic index and CPs concentration in liver ( p < 0.01), indicating that CP exposure may lower survival rates of frogs by suppressing the energy storage in liver. Additionally, maternal transfer, an important uptake pathway for CPs, was evaluated for the first time by calculating the ratios of CP levels in eggs to those in their paired liver tissues. The ratio of egg to liver for CP congener groups raised with the increasing of log Kow values, indicating mother to egg transport of CPs was related to the lipophilicity of the chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Du
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering , Tongji University , Shanghai 200092 , P. R. China
| | - Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry , Stockholm University , SE-10691 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Yihui Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering , Tongji University , Shanghai 200092 , P. R. China
| | - Ziye Zheng
- Department of Chemistry , Umeå University , SE-901 87 Umeå , Sweden
| | - Yan Wu
- School of Public and Environmental Affairs , Indiana University , Bloomington , Indiana 47405 , United States
| | - Yanling Qiu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering , Tongji University , Shanghai 200092 , P. R. China
| | - Jianfu Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering , Tongji University , Shanghai 200092 , P. R. China
| | - Ge Yin
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry , Stockholm University , SE-10691 Stockholm , Sweden
- Shimadzu (China) Company, Limited , Shanghai 200233 , P. R. China
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The quantification of chlorinated paraffins in environmental samples by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with Orbitrap Fusion Tribrid mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1593:102-109. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.01.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 01/16/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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40
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Yuan B, Vorkamp K, Roos AM, Faxneld S, Sonne C, Garbus SE, Lind Y, Eulaers I, Hellström P, Dietz R, Persson S, Bossi R, de Wit CA. Accumulation of Short-, Medium-, and Long-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins in Marine and Terrestrial Animals from Scandinavia. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:3526-3537. [PMID: 30848596 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Short-, medium-, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs) have a wide range of physical-chemical properties, indicating their varying bioaccumulation tendencies in marine and terrestrial ecosystems. However, there are few empirical data to reveal such bioaccumulation tendencies. In this study, we analyzed SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs in samples from 18 species at both low and high trophic levels of marine and terrestrial ecosystems from the Scandinavian region collected during the past decade. These included fish, seabirds, marine mammals, and terrestrial birds and mammals. SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs were present in all the species, with concentrations ranging from 26-1500, 30-1600, 6.0-1200 ng/g lipid, respectively. Although MCCPs and SCCPs predominated in most species, many terrestrial species had generally higher concentrations of LCCPs than marine species. Terrestrial raptors in particular accumulated higher concentrations of LCCPs, including C24/25-which are predominant among very-long-chain components. LCCP concentrations were highest and predominated (55% of total CPs) in peregrine falcons in this study, which is the first report where concentrations of LCCPs surpass those of SCCPs and MCCPs in wildlife. The results also indicate biomagnification of SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs in both marine and terrestrial food chains, but in-depth studies of specific food webs are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry , Stockholm University , Svante Arrhenius väg 8 , SE-10691 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Katrin Vorkamp
- Department of Environmental Science, Arctic Research Centre , Aarhus University , Frederiksborgvej 399 , PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde , Denmark
| | - Anna Maria Roos
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring , Swedish Museum of Natural History , PO Box 50007, SE-10405 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Suzanne Faxneld
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring , Swedish Museum of Natural History , PO Box 50007, SE-10405 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Christian Sonne
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre , Aarhus University , Frederiksborgvej 399 , PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde , Denmark
| | - Svend Erik Garbus
- Department of Environmental Science, Arctic Research Centre , Aarhus University , Frederiksborgvej 399 , PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde , Denmark
| | - Ylva Lind
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring , Swedish Museum of Natural History , PO Box 50007, SE-10405 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Igor Eulaers
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre , Aarhus University , Frederiksborgvej 399 , PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde , Denmark
| | - Peter Hellström
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring , Swedish Museum of Natural History , PO Box 50007, SE-10405 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Rune Dietz
- Department of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre , Aarhus University , Frederiksborgvej 399 , PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde , Denmark
| | - Sara Persson
- Department of Environmental Research and Monitoring , Swedish Museum of Natural History , PO Box 50007, SE-10405 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Rossana Bossi
- Department of Environmental Science, Arctic Research Centre , Aarhus University , Frederiksborgvej 399 , PO Box 358, DK-4000 Roskilde , Denmark
| | - Cynthia A de Wit
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry , Stockholm University , Svante Arrhenius väg 8 , SE-10691 Stockholm , Sweden
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Yuan B, Muir D, MacLeod M. Methods for trace analysis of short-, medium-, and long-chain chlorinated paraffins: Critical review and recommendations. Anal Chim Acta 2019; 1074:16-32. [PMID: 31159936 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2019.02.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 02/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Many methods for quantifying chlorinated paraffins (CPs) yield only a total concentration of the mixture as a single value. With appropriate analytical instrumentation and quantification methods, more reliable and detailed analysis can be performed by quantifying total concentrations of short-, medium-, and long-chain CPs (SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs), and in the current optimal situation by quantifying individual carbon-chlorine congener groups (CnClm). Sample extraction and clean-up methods for other persistent organochlorines that have been adapted for recovery of CPs must be applied prior to quantification with appropriate quality assurance and quality control to ensure applicability of the methods for SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs. Part critical review, part tutorial, and part perspective, this paper provides practical guidance to analytical chemists who are interested in establishing a method for analysis of CPs in their lab facilities using commercial reference standards, or for expanding existing analysis of total CPs or SCCPs to analysis of SCCPs, MCCPs, and LCCPs, or to analysis of CnClm congener groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Derek Muir
- Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, Canada
| | - Matthew MacLeod
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
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HUANG XM, WU Y, CUI JT, WANG FH, WANG X, LI YF, WU WY. Applications of High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry in Determination of Chlorinated Paraffins. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2040(19)61144-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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43
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Sprengel J, Vetter W. Synthesis and characterization of eight single chain length chlorinated paraffin standards and their use for quantification. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2019; 33:49-56. [PMID: 30334592 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.8310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2018] [Revised: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 10/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE Quantification of chlorinated paraffins (CPs) via gas chromatography coupled with electron capture negative ionization low-resolution mass spectrometry (GC/ECNI-MS) is a very common practice, although the quality of the results has been disputed due to insufficient mass resolution and the strong impact of the degree of chlorination on the GC/ECNI-MS response. METHODS For further tests we synthesized eight single chain length CP standards (C10 -C17 ) with chlorine contents between 51.1% and 61.3%. The individual single chain length standards, 1 + 1 mixtures of two chain length standards and self-prepared mixtures of short-chain and medium-chain CPs were quantified by linear regression according to a previously reported method (method 1) as well as by exponential regression (method 2). RESULTS Concentrations obtained from single chain length CP standards deviated between -74% and 152% from the target value. However, the error became smaller when self-prepared CP mixes with two and four chain lengths were analysed. For short-chain CP (SCCP) mixture analysis, both methods produced good results (<25% deviation from the target value). In the case of medium-chain CP (MCCP) mixtures, however, method 2 (17-34% deviation) was more accurate than method 1 (43-52% deviation). CONCLUSIONS Both methods 1 and 2 are fit for GC/ECNI-MS analysis of SCCP mixtures, while the improved method 2 is recommended for quantification of MCCP mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannik Sprengel
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Garbenstr. 28, D-70599, Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Walter Vetter
- University of Hohenheim, Institute of Food Chemistry, Garbenstr. 28, D-70599, Stuttgart, Germany
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44
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Dong S, Li X, Su X, Wang P. Concentrations and congener group profiles of short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins in animal feed materials. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 647:676-681. [PMID: 30092523 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are ubiquitous environmental pollutants that are lipophilic and can accumulate in the food chain. Animal-derived products are predominant contributors to human CP exposure. CPs in animal feed might accumulate in domestic animals through dietary exposure, leading to potential contamination of animal-derived food products and human health risks. However, information on the presence of CPs in animal feed materials is scarce. In this study, 16 animal feed material samples were collected in China in 2016. Thirteen of the samples were of animal origin and three were of plant origin. The concentrations and carbon and chlorine congener group profiles of shortchain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (MCCPs) in these animal feed materials were investigated. The concentrations of SCCPs were higher than those of MCCPs in all of the samples. The SCCP concentration range was 120 to 1700 ng/g (mean 640 ng/g), and the MCCP concentration range was 6.4 to 260 ng/g (mean 78 ng/g). Fish meal had the highest SCCP and MCCP concentrations. The lowest SCCP and MCCP concentrations were detected in peanut meal and whey powder, respectively. The concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs varied among the types of animal feed materials. SCCP and MCCP concentrations also varied among samples of the same type of animal feed material. Relatively high concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs were detected in feed materials of animal origin. The predominant congener groups in the animal feed materials were C10-11Cl6-7 for SCCPs and C14Cl7 for MCCPs. The carbon and chlorine congener group profiles of SCCPs indicated that SCCP contamination in the animal feed materials might arise from commercial CP mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shujun Dong
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xiaomin Li
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xiaoou Su
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China.
| | - Peilong Wang
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology for Agro-Products, The Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100081, China
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45
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Binninger T, Pribyl B, Pătru A, Ruettimann P, Bjelić S, Schmidt TJ. Multivariate calibration method for mass spectrometry of interfering gases such as mixtures of CO, N 2 , and CO 2. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2018; 53:1214-1221. [PMID: 30320941 DOI: 10.1002/jms.4299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2018] [Revised: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/30/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A multivariate calibration method for mass spectrometry is presented that enables a quantitative analysis of gas mixtures containing interfering gases that contribute to the same mass-to-charge ratios at nominal resolution. Multiple calibration gas mixtures with linearly independent compositions are used in order to obtain the calibration constants for the contribution of each gas to each of the mass-to-charge ratio peaks. The method was successfully applied to the quantitative detection of CO in a mixture with CO2 and N2 , which represents a difficulty commonly encountered in heterogeneous catalysis and electrocatalysis research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Saša Bjelić
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Thomas J Schmidt
- Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232, Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- ETH Zürich, Laboratory of Physical Chemistry, CH-8093, Zürich, Switzerland
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46
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Castro M, Breitholtz M, Yuan B, Athanassiadis I, Asplund L, Sobek A. Partitioning of Chlorinated Paraffins (CPs) to Daphnia magna Overlaps between Restricted and in-Use Categories. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:9713-9721. [PMID: 30074385 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b00865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are high-production volume industrial chemicals consisting of n-alkanes (with 10 to 30 carbon atoms in the chain) with chlorine content from 30 to 70% of weight. In Europe, the use of short chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs) has been restricted by the Stockholm Convention on POPs due to their PBT (persistent, bioaccumulative and toxic) properties. Medium (MCCPs) and long chain (LCCPs) chlorinated paraffins are used as substitution products. In this work we studied the partitioning behavior of five different CP technical mixtures from the established categories (2 SCCPs, 1 MCCP, 1 LCCP and 1 CP technical mixture covering all categories) using passive dosing, by determining the partitioning coefficient of CP technical mixtures between silicone and water ( Ksilicone-water) as well as between organic matter and water ( Koc-water). We show that both silicone-water and organic carbon-water partition coefficients overlap between different categories of CP technical mixtures. These results indicate that in-use MCCPs and LCCPs may be equally or more bioaccumulative than restricted SCCPs. For the tested mixtures, both chlorine content and carbon chain length showed a significant correlation with both Ksilicone-water and Koc-water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mafalda Castro
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Magnus Breitholtz
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Bo Yuan
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Ioannis Athanassiadis
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Lillemor Asplund
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Anna Sobek
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 106-91 Stockholm , Sweden
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47
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Schinkel L, Lehner S, Heeb NV, Marchand P, Cariou R, McNeill K, Bogdal C. Dealing with strong mass interferences of chlorinated paraffins and their transformation products: An analytical guide. Trends Analyt Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2018.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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48
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Wang C, Gao W, Liang Y, Wang Y, Jiang G. Concentrations and congener profiles of chlorinated paraffins in domestic polymeric products in China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2018; 238:326-335. [PMID: 29573715 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2018.02.078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2017] [Revised: 02/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2018] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are widely used in domestic polymeric products as plasticizers and fire retardants. In this study, concentrations and congener profiles of short-chain and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs and MCCPs) were investigated in domestic polymeric products, including plastics, rubber and food packaging in China. The average concentrations of SCCPs in polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE) and food packaging were 234, 3968, 150 and 188 ng/g, respectively and the corresponding average concentrations of MCCPs in these samples were 37.4, 2537, 208 and 644 ng/g, respectively. The concentrations of CPs in rubber and polyvinylchloride (PVC) were significantly higher than in other matrices. The highest concentrations of SCCPs and MCCPs were found in a PVC cable sheath with 191 mg/g and 145 mg/g, respectively. Congener group profiles analysis indicated C11- and C13-congener groups were predominant in carbon homologues of SCCPs, and C14-congener groups were predominant in MCCPs. High levels of SCCPs and MCCPs in domestic polymeric products implied that they might be a significant source to the environment and human exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chu Wang
- Institute of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan, 430056, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Wei Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Yong Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Yawei Wang
- Institute of Environment and Health, Jianghan University, Wuhan, 430056, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Science, Beijing, 100049, China.
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 18 Shuangqing Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100085, China
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49
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Glüge J, Schinkel L, Hungerbühler K, Cariou R, Bogdal C. Environmental Risks of Medium-Chain Chlorinated Paraffins (MCCPs): A Review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:6743-6760. [PMID: 29791144 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b06459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 151] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins are industrial chemicals that can be subdivided into short-chain (SCCP), medium-chain (MCCP), and long-chain (LCCP) chlorinated paraffins. The global production volumes of MCCPs are nowadays suspected to be much higher than those of S- and LCCPs, and the few available studies on the environmental occurrence of chlorinated paraffins report often higher MCCP concentrations than S- or LCCP concentrations in the environment. The present review focuses, therefore, on MCCPs specifically and provides a literature overview and a data analysis of the production volumes, PBT properties (persistence, bioaccumulation potential, and toxicity), and the worldwide measured concentrations of MCCP in environmental samples, biota, and humans. Furthermore, we include our own measurements of technical CP formulations from China, the major global producing country, to estimate the global production amounts of MCCPs. The key findings from this review are that (1) MCCPs are toxic to the aquatic environment, and the available data suggest that they are also persistent; (2) available time trends for MCCPs in soil, biota, and most of the sediment cores show increasing time trends over the last years to decades; and (3) MCCP concentrations in sediment close to local sources exceed toxicity thresholds (i.e., the PNEC). Our study shows that overall, MCCPs are of growing concern, and regulatory actions should be considered seriously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliane Glüge
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology , ETH Zurich , 8093 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Lena Schinkel
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa Dübendorf , 8600 Dübendorf , Switzerland
| | - Konrad Hungerbühler
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology , ETH Zurich , 8093 Zurich , Switzerland
| | - Ronan Cariou
- LABERCA, Oniris, INRA , Université Bretagne-Loire , 44307 Nantes , France
| | - Christian Bogdal
- Institute for Chemical and Bioengineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology , ETH Zurich , 8093 Zurich , Switzerland
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50
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Huang X, Liu Q, Gao W, Wang Y, Nie Z, Yao S, Jiang G. Fast screening of short-chain chlorinated paraffins in indoor dust samples by graphene-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry. Talanta 2018; 179:575-582. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2017.11.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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