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Jia Z, Liu L, Liu J, Fang C, Pan M, Zhang J, Li Y, Xian Z, Xiao H. Assessing potential liver injury induced by Polygonum multiflorum using potential biomarkers via targeted sphingolipidomics. PHARMACEUTICAL BIOLOGY 2022; 60:1578-1590. [PMID: 35949191 PMCID: PMC9377235 DOI: 10.1080/13880209.2022.2099908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 07/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. (Polygonaceae) (PM) can cause potential liver injury which is typical in traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs)-induced hepatotoxicity. The mechanism involved are unclear and there are no sensitive evaluation indicators. OBJECTIVE To assess PM-induced liver injury, identify sensitive assessment indicators, and screen for new biomarkers using sphingolipidomics. MATERIALS AND METHODS Male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were randomly divided into four groups (control, model with low-, middle- and high-dose groups, n = 6 each). Rats in the three model groups were given different doses of PM (i.g., low/middle/high dose, 2.7/8.1/16.2 g/kg) for four months. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels in the plasma and liver were quantitatively analyzed. Fixed liver tissue sections were stained with haematoxylin and eosin and examined under a light microscope. The targeted sphingolipidomic analysis of plasma was performed using high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. RESULTS The maximal tolerable dose (MTD) of PM administered intragastrically to mice was 51 g/kg. Sphingolipid profiling of normal and PM-induced liver injury SD rats revealed three potential biomarkers: ceramide (Cer) (d18:1/24:1), dihydroceramide (d18:1/18:0)-1-phosphate (dhCer (d18:1/18:0)-1P) and Cer (d18:1/26:1), at 867.3-1349, 383.4-1527, and 540.5-658.7 ng/mL, respectively. A criterion for the ratio of Cer (d18:1/24:1) and Cer (d18:1/26:1) was suggested and verified, with a normal range of 1.343-2.368 (with 95% confidence interval) in plasma. CONCLUSIONS Three potential biomarkers and one criterion for potential liver injury caused by PM that may be more sensitive than ALT and AST were found.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhixin Jia
- Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- Research Center of Chinese Medicine Analysis and Transformation, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Lirong Liu
- Research Center of Chinese Medicine Analysis and Transformation, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- School of Chinese Materia Medical, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Jie Liu
- Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- Research Center of Chinese Medicine Analysis and Transformation, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Cong Fang
- Research Center of Chinese Medicine Analysis and Transformation, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- School of Chinese Materia Medical, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Mingxia Pan
- Research Center of Chinese Medicine Analysis and Transformation, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- School of Chinese Materia Medical, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Jingxuan Zhang
- Beijing Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Yueting Li
- Research Center of Chinese Medicine Analysis and Transformation, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
- School of Chinese Materia Medical, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Zhong Xian
- Research Center of Chinese Medicine Analysis and Transformation, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Hongbin Xiao
- Research Center of Chinese Medicine Analysis and Transformation, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
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Hu X, Wu JL, Miao W, Long F, Pan H, Peng T, Yao X, Li N. Covalent Protein Modification: An Unignorable Factor for Bisphenol A-Induced Hepatotoxicity. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:9536-9545. [PMID: 35593067 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c01307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Covalent modification of proteins by reactive pollutants/metabolites might trigger various toxicities resulting from the disruption of protein structures and/or functions, which is critical for understanding the mechanism of pollutants-induced toxicity. However, this mechanism has rarely been touched on due to the lack of a methodology. In this research, the protein modification of bisphenol A (BPA) in rats was characterized using a series of liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS) approaches. BPA-modified cysteine (Cys1) was first released from proteins via enzymatic hydrolysis and identified using LC-MS. Moreover, the positive correlation between Cys1 and hepatotoxicity indicated the involvement of protein modification in BPA toxicity. Then, in vitro incubation of BPA with amino acids and protein confirmed that BPA could specifically modify cysteine residues of proteins after bioactivation and provided four additional modification patterns. Finally, 24 BPA-modified proteins were identified from the liver of BPA-exposed rats using proteomic analysis, and they were mainly enriched in oxidative stress-related pathways. The modification on superoxide dismutases, catalase, and glutathione S-transferases disrupted their enzymatic functions, leading to oxidative damage. These results revealed that the covalent protein modification is an unignorable factor for BPA hepatotoxicity. Moreover, the workflow can be applied to identify protein adducts of other emerging contaminants and possible risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaolan Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa 999078, Macau SAR, China
| | - Jian-Lin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa 999078, Macau SAR, China
| | - Wen Miao
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa 999078, Macau SAR, China
| | - Fei Long
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510180, China
| | - Hudan Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa 999078, Macau SAR, China
| | - Tao Peng
- Sino-French Hoffmann Institute, School of Basic Medical Science, State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou 510180, China
| | - Xiaojun Yao
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa 999078, Macau SAR, China
| | - Na Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa 999078, Macau SAR, China
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Gong S, Hu X, Chen S, Sun B, Wu JL, Li N. Dual roles of drug or its metabolite-protein conjugate: Cutting-edge strategy of drug discovery using shotgun proteomics. Med Res Rev 2022; 42:1704-1734. [PMID: 35638460 DOI: 10.1002/med.21889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Many drugs can bind directly to proteins or be bioactivated by metabolizing enzymes to form reactive metabolites (RMs) that rapidly bind to proteins to form drug-protein conjugates or metabolite-protein conjugates (DMPCs). The close relationship between DMPCs and idiosyncratic adverse drug reactions (IADRs) has been recognized; drug discovery teams tend to avoid covalent interactions in drug discovery projects. Covalent interactions in DMPCs can provide high potency and long action duration and conquer the intractable targets, inspiring drug design, and development. This forms the dual role feature of DMPCs. Understanding the functional implications of DMPCs in IADR control and therapeutic applications requires precise identification of these conjugates from complex biological samples. While classical biochemical methods have contributed significantly to DMPC detection in the past decades, the low abundance and low coverage of DMPCs have become a bottleneck in this field. An emerging transformation toward shotgun proteomics is on the rise. The evolving shotgun proteomics techniques offer improved reproducibility, throughput, specificity, operability, and standardization. Here, we review recent progress in the systematic discovery of DMPCs using shotgun proteomics. Furthermore, the applications of shotgun proteomics supporting drug development, toxicity mechanism investigation, and drug repurposing processes are also reviewed and prospected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilin Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau
| | - Xiaolan Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau
| | - Shengshuang Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau
| | - Baoqing Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, National Respiratory Medical Center, National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Disease, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Health, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jian-Lin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau
| | - Na Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau
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IKK β mediates homeostatic function in inflammation via competitively phosphorylating AMPK and I κB α. Acta Pharm Sin B 2022; 12:651-664. [PMID: 35256937 PMCID: PMC8897026 DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2021.09.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 09/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B kinase subunit beta (IKKβ) is one of important kinases in inflammation to phosphorylate inhibitor of nuclear factor kappa-B (IκBα) and then activate nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB). Inhibition of IKKβ has been a therapeutic strategy for inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Here we report that IKKβ is constitutively activated in healthy donors and healthy IkkβC46A (cysteine 46 mutated to alanine) knock-in mice although they possess intensive IKKβ–IκBα–NF-κB signaling activation. These indicate that IKKβ activation probably plays homeostatic role instead of causing inflammation. Compared to IkkβWT littermates, lipopolysaccharides (LPS) could induce high mortality rate in IkkβC46A mice which is correlated to breaking the homeostasis by intensively activating p-IκBα–NF-κB signaling and inhibiting phosphorylation of 5ʹ adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (p-AMPK) expression. We then demonstrated that IKKβ kinase domain (KD) phosphorylates AMPKα1 via interacting with residues Thr183, Ser184, and Thr388, while IKKβ helix–loop–helix motifs is essential to phosphorylate IκBα according to the previous reports. Kinase assay further demonstrated that IKKβ simultaneously catalyzes phosphorylation of AMPK and IκBα to mediate homeostasis. Accordingly, activation of AMPK rather than inhibition of IKKβ could substantially rescue LPS-induced mortality in IkkβC46A mice by rebuilding the homeostasis. We conclude that IKKβ activates AMPK to restrict inflammation and IKKβ mediates homeostatic function in inflammation via competitively phosphorylating AMPK and IκBα.
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Gong S, Zhuo Y, Chen S, Hu X, Fan XX, Wu JL, Li N. Quantification of Osimertinib and Metabolite-Protein Modification Reveals Its High Potency and Long Duration of Effects on Target Organs. Chem Res Toxicol 2021; 34:2309-2318. [PMID: 34665607 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Covalent drugs are newly developed and proved to be successful therapies in past decades. However, the pharmacokinetics (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) studies of covalent drugs now ignore the drug and metabolite-protein modification. The low abundance of modified proteins also prevents its investigation. Herein, a simple, selective, and sensitive liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS)/MS quantitative method was established based on the mechanism of a drug and its metabolite-protein adducts using osimertinib as an example. Five metabolites with covalent modification potential were identified. The drug and its metabolite-cysteine adducts released from modified proteins by a mixed hydrolysis method were developed to characterize the level of the modified proteins. This turned the quantitative objects from proteins or peptides to small molecules, which increased the sensitivity and throughput of the quantitative approach. Accumulation of protein adducts formed by osimertinib and its metabolites in target organs was observed in vivo and long-lasting modifications were noted. These results interpreted the long duration of the covalent drugs' effect from the perspective of both parent and the metabolites. In addition, the established method could also be applied in blood testing as noninvasive monitoring. This newly developed approach showed great feasibility for PK and PD studies of covalent drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shilin Gong
- Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
| | - Yue Zhuo
- Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China.,Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Shengshuang Chen
- Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
| | - Xiaolan Hu
- Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
| | - Xing-Xing Fan
- Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
| | - Jian-Lin Wu
- Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
| | - Na Li
- Macau Institute for Applied Research in Medicine and Health, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Taipa, Macau 999078, China
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Xiao RR, Lv T, Tu X, Li P, Wang T, Dong H, Tu P, Ai X. An integrated biomimetic array chip for establishment of collagen-based 3D primary human hepatocyte model for prediction of clinical drug-induced liver injury. Biotechnol Bioeng 2021; 118:4687-4698. [PMID: 34478150 DOI: 10.1002/bit.27931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 08/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a leading cause of therapy failure in the clinic and also contributes much to acute liver failure cases. Investigations of predictive sensitivity in animal models have limitations due to interspecies differences. Previously reported in vitro models of liver injury based on primary human hepatocytes (PHHs) cannot meet the requirements of high physiological fidelity, low cost, simple operation, and high throughput with improved sensitivity. Herein, we developed an integrated biomimetic array chip (iBAC) for establishing extracellular matrix (ECM)-based models. A collagen-based 3D PHH model was constructed on the iBAC as a case for the prediction of clinical DILI at throughput. The iBAC has a three-layer structure with a core component of 3D implanting holes. At an initial cell seeding numbers of 5000-10,000, the collagen-based 3D PHH model was optimized with improved and stabilized liver functionality, including cell viability, albumin, and urea production. Moreover, basal activities of most metabolic enzymes on the iBAC were maintained for at least 12 days. Next, a small-scale hepatotoxicity screening indicated that the 3D PHH model on the iBAC was more sensitive for predicting hepatotoxicity than the 2D PHH model on the plate. Finally, a large-scale screening of liver toxicity using 122 clinical drugs further demonstrated that the collagen-based 3D PHH model on the iBAC had superior predictive sensitivity compared to all previously reported in vitro models. These results indicated the importance of 3D collagen for liver physiological functionality and hepatotoxicity prediction. We anticipant it being a promising tool for risk assessment of drug-induced hepatotoxicity with a widespread acceptance in drug industry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tian Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Xia Tu
- Discovery Biology Unit, WuXi AppTec (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Peiwen Li
- R&D Department, Beijing Daxiang Biotech, Beijing, China
| | - Tiantian Wang
- Discovery Biology Unit, WuXi AppTec (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Haiheng Dong
- Discovery Biology Unit, WuXi AppTec (Shanghai) Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Pengfei Tu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaoni Ai
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing, China
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7
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Zhuo Y, Zhang Y, Li M, Wu H, Gong S, Hu X, Fu Y, Shen X, Sun B, Wu JL, Li N. Hepatotoxic evaluation of toosendanin via biomarker quantification and pathway mapping of large-scale chemical proteomics. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 153:112257. [PMID: 34000341 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Drug-induced liver injury (DILI) is a major side effect, sometimes can't be exactly evaluated by current approaches partly as the covalent modification of drug or its reactive metabolites (RMs) with proteins is a possible reason. In this study, we developed a rapid, sensitive, and specific analytical method to assess the hepatotoxicity induced by drug covalently modified proteins based on the quantification of the modified amino acids using toosendanin (TSN), a hepatotoxic chemical, as an example. TSN RM-protein adducts both in rat liver and blood showed good correlation with the severity of hepatotoxicity. Thus, TSN RM-protein adducts in serum can potentially serve as minimally invasive biomarkers of hepatotoxicity. Meanwhile, large-scale chemical proteomics analysis showed that at least 84 proteins were modified by TSN RMs in rat liver, and the bioinformatics analysis revealed that TSN might induce hepatotoxicity through multi-target protein-protein interaction especially involved in energy metabolism. These findings suggest that our approach may serve as a valuable tool to evaluate DILI and investigate the possible mechanism, especially for complex compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Zhuo
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau SAR, 999078, PR China; Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, 510405, China
| | - Yida Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau SAR, 999078, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, PR China
| | - Meng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau SAR, 999078, PR China
| | - Haiying Wu
- Department of Emergency, The First Affiliated Hospital of Kunming Medical University, Kunming, China
| | - Shilin Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau SAR, 999078, PR China
| | - Xiaolan Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau SAR, 999078, PR China
| | - Yu Fu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau SAR, 999078, PR China
| | - Xinzi Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau SAR, 999078, PR China
| | - Baoqing Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, PR China
| | - Jian-Lin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau SAR, 999078, PR China.
| | - Na Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau SAR, 999078, PR China.
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Luo Y, Gao F, Chang R, Zhang X, Zhong J, Wen J, Wu J, Zhou T. Metabolomics based comprehensive investigation of Gardeniae Fructus induced hepatotoxicity. Food Chem Toxicol 2021; 153:112250. [PMID: 33964367 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2021.112250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Gardeniae Fructus (Zhizi in Chinese, ZZ in brief), a commonly used herbal medicine, has aroused wide concern for hepatotoxicity, but the mechanism remains to be investigated. This study was aimed at investigating the mechanism of ZZ-induced liver injury in vivo and in vitro based on metabolomics and evaluating the hepatotoxicity prediction ability of the in vitro model. SD rats were administered with extracted ZZ and HepG2 cells were treated with genipin, the major hepatotoxic metabolite of ZZ. Liver, plasma, intracellular and extracellular samples were obtained for metabolomics analysis. As a result, ZZ caused plasma biochemical and liver histopathological alterations in rats, and induced purine and amino acid metabolism disorder in the liver and pyrimidine, primary bile acids, amino acid metabolism and pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis disorder in the plasma. Pyrimidine, purine, amino acid metabolism and pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis were also found to be disturbed in the genipin-treated HepG2 cells, which exhibited similarity with the result in vivo. This study comprehensively illustrates the underlying mechanism involved in ZZ-related hepatotoxicity from the aspect of metabolome, and provides evidence that identifying hepatotoxicity can be achieved in cells, representing a non-animal alternative for systemic toxicology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yusha Luo
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Metabolite Research, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Fangyuan Gao
- Department of Health Toxicology, Faculty of Naval Medicine, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Ruirui Chang
- Key Lab of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Xingjie Zhang
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Jie Zhong
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Metabolite Research, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Jun Wen
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Metabolite Research, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
| | - Jianlin Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Quality Research of Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macao.
| | - Tingting Zhou
- School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China; Shanghai Key Laboratory for Pharmaceutical Metabolite Research, School of Pharmacy, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, 200433, China.
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Roberg-Larsen H, Wilson SR, Lundanes E. Recent advances in on-line upfront devices for sensitive bioanalytical nano LC methods. Trends Analyt Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2021.116190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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10
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LI J, ZHUO Y, ZHANG Y, LI N, WU J. [Size exclusion-reverse liquid column chromatography-mass spectrometry and its application in the identification of post-translationally modified proteins in rat kidney]. Se Pu 2021; 39:87-95. [PMID: 34227362 PMCID: PMC9274831 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1123.2020.05028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteomics is an emerging field that has been shown to play a crucial role in unveiling the mechanisms underlying physiological and pathological processes, and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) is one of the most important methods employed in this field. However, in complex biological systems, such as eukaryotes, it is challenging to perform a comprehensive and unbiased proteome analysis due to the high complexity of biological samples and enormous differences in sample contents. For example, post-translational modifications (PTMs) in proteins are imperative for cell signaling, but post-translationally modified proteins account for about 1% of the total proteins in a single cell, making their identification extremely difficult. Therefore, chromatographic separation methods based on different principles are generally applied to reduce the complexity of biological samples and enrich trace proteins for their identification through mass spectrometry (MS). In this study, we developed a new proteomics method by combining size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and reversed-phase chromatography (RPLC), to separate and identify trace proteins in complex systems. SEC was used to separate and enrich kidney-specific proteins. After optimization of the method, it was found that 30 mmol/L of ammonium acetate could efficiently separate rat kidney proteins from the total protein fraction so that they could be eluted based on their relative molecular mass. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) analysis and LC-MS results showed that our SEC separation method not only refined the protein composition of the biological sample but also enhanced the relative contents of trace proteins through multiple injections. The collected protein fractions were further concentrated through ultrafiltration centrifugation followed by freeze-drying, which further improved the recovery of trace proteins by approximately 90% and largely decreased the time required with the use of freeze-drying alone. Thereafter, five protein fractions were separately digested using trypsin, and the resultant peptides were further analyzed by reverse phase chromatography-MS analysis. In the RPLC column, the peptides were isolated mainly based on their hydrophobicity. As a result, by combining SEC and RPLC, 23621 peptides and 1345 proteins were identified from the kidney, with an increase in numbers by 69% and 27%, respectively, when compared to those obtained using the common 2D strong cation exchange (SCX)-RPLC-MS method. However, no significant difference was observed in the pI and grand average of hydropathicity (GRAVY) values. Gene ontology (GO) analysis revealed an increase in the number of proteins in each cell component, especially the membrane. Furthermore, identification of a higher rate of identified peptides than proteins suggested that the protein coverage was also improved, thereby facilitating the detection of PTM proteins. Consequently, five common PTMs in biological processes, including methylation, acetylation, carbamylation, oxidation, and phosphorylation, were examined and compared between the two methods. As expected, the number of post-translationally modified peptides identified using SEC-RPLC-MS were 1.7-1.9 times more than those determined using the SCX-RPLC-MS method. Especially for the identification of phosphorylated peptides, we could achieve the level of the targeted enrichment strategy; however no significant difference was observed in the extents of phosphorylation among serine, threonine, and tyrosine. These results further indicate that upon combining SEC and RPLC, high efficiency could be achieved by decreasing the complexity of the protein sample, and the identification was unbiased. Finally, the phosphorylation of some kidney proteins, such as spectrin, L-lactate dehydrogenase, and ATPases, was found, which is critical for their functions. In summary, the SEC-RPLC-MS approach was developed for the identification of rat kidney proteins and is especially applicable for the identification of PTM proteins. Using this method, the identification efficiency for PTM peptides increased significantly. Therefore, this method has potential for better understanding the impact of PTM on kidney proteins and further elucidating the potential mechanisms underlying its physiological and pathological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianmin LI
- 澳门科技大学中医药学院, 中药质量研究国家重点实验室, 澳门 999078
- Faculty of Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
| | - Yue ZHUO
- 澳门科技大学中医药学院, 中药质量研究国家重点实验室, 澳门 999078
- Faculty of Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
| | - Yida ZHANG
- 澳门科技大学中医药学院, 中药质量研究国家重点实验室, 澳门 999078
- Faculty of Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
| | - Na LI
- 澳门科技大学中医药学院, 中药质量研究国家重点实验室, 澳门 999078
- Faculty of Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
| | - Jianlin WU
- 澳门科技大学中医药学院, 中药质量研究国家重点实验室, 澳门 999078
- Faculty of Chinese Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Macau 999078, China
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11
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Pan M, Hong L, Xie X, Liu K, Yang J, Wang S. Nanomaterials‐Based Surface Protein Imprinted Polymers: Synthesis and Medical Applications. MACROMOL CHEM PHYS 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/macp.202000222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mingfei Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Ministry of Education of China Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Liping Hong
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Ministry of Education of China Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Xiaoqian Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Ministry of Education of China Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Kaixin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Ministry of Education of China Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Jingying Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Ministry of Education of China Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
| | - Shuo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
- Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Ministry of Education of China Tianjin University of Science and Technology Tianjin 300457 China
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12
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Ai X, Zhao L, Lu Y, Hou Y, Lv T, Jiang Y, Tu P, Guo X. Integrated Array Chip for High-Throughput Screening of Species Differences in Metabolism. Anal Chem 2020; 92:11696-11704. [PMID: 32786470 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c01590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Species differences in metabolism may produce failure prediction of drug efficacy/toxicity in humans. Integration of metabolic competence and cellular effect assays in vitro can provide insight into the species differences in metabolism; however, a co-culture platform with features of high throughput, operational simplicity, low sample consumption, and independent layouts is required for potential usage in industrial test settings. Herein, we developed an integrated array chip (IAC) to evaluate the species differences in metabolism through metabolism-induced anticancer bioactivity as a case. The IAC consisted of two functional parts: a micropillar chip for immobilization of liver microsomes and a microwell chip for three-dimensional (3D) tumor cell culture. First, optimized parameters of the micropillar chip for microsomal encapsulation were obtained by cross-shaped protrusions and a 2.5 μL volume of 3D agarose spots. Next, we examined factors influencing metabolism-induced anticancer bioactivity. Feasibility of the IAC was validated by four model prodrugs using image-based bioactivity detection and mass spectrometry (MS)-based metabolite analysis. Finally, a species-specific IAC was used for selection of animal species that best resembles metabolism-induced drug response to humans at throughputs. Overall, the IAC provides a promising co-culture platform for identifying species differences in metabolism and selection of animal models to accelerate drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoni Ai
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Lin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yingyuan Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yu Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Tian Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Yong Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Pengfei Tu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Xiaoyu Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China
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13
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Hou Y, Ai X, Zhao L, Gao Z, Wang Y, Lu Y, Tu P, Jiang Y. An integrated biomimetic array chip for high-throughput co-culture of liver and tumor microtissues for advanced anticancer bioactivity screening. LAB ON A CHIP 2020; 20:2482-2494. [PMID: 32542294 DOI: 10.1039/d0lc00288g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The integration of liver metabolism and hepatotoxicity evaluation for anticancer bioactivity assays in vitro is of fundamental importance to better predict the efficacy and safety of anticancer drugs. In particular, there is a lack of co-culture techniques that can fully mimic the physiological microenvironment at speeds consistent with high-throughput screening. Herein, an integrated Biomimetic Array Chip (iBAC) that enables co-culture of three-dimensional (3D) liver and tumor microtissues was developed for advanced anticancer bioactivity screening at throughputs. The iBAC consisted of two functional chips, a liver chip and a tumor chip containing a cross-shaped protrusion on the tip of a pillar array for co-culture. First, the 3D biomimetic liver microtissue on the liver chip was optimized to mimic superior liver function. Next, the constructed iBAC was evaluated for metabolism-induced anticancer bioactivity by using model prodrugs and for the effect of drug-drug interactions. Finally, the functionality of the iBAC for simultaneous evaluation of anticancer bioactivity and hepatotoxicity was verified. The iBAC exhibits superior performance in biomimetic and integrated functions as well as operationally simple and high-throughput co-culture that makes a good balance between functionality and throughput. Overall, the iBAC provides an integrated, biomimetic and high-throughput co-culture platform to complement the conventional bioactivity assay in tiered screening strategies and could be used as a secondary screening tool at the early phase of drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Hou
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
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14
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Liu M, Li N, Zhang Y, Zheng Z, Zhuo Y, Sun B, Bai LP, Zhang M, Guo MQ, Wu JL. Characterization of covalent protein modification by triclosan in vivo and in vitro via three-dimensional liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry: New insight into its adverse effects. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2020; 136:105423. [PMID: 32035293 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2019.105423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/13/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Triclosan (TCS), an antimicrobial agent widely used in personal care products and ubiquitously exists in environment, has drawn increasing concern due to its potential to exert multiple adverse effects, ranging from endocrine disruption to carcinogenesis. However, the mechanism of these adverse effects is still not fully elucidated. More and more studies have shown that chemical reactive metabolites (RMs) covalently binding to proteins is a possible reason for these adverse effects, but there is still a lack of appropriate methods to predict or evaluate these adverse effects due to the extremely low abundance of the modified proteins in complex biological samples. In this study, we attempted to address this problem and investigate the possible mechanism of TCS adverse effects by a shotgun proteomics approach based on three-dimensional-liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (3D-LC-MS). First, the in vitro incubation with model amino acids and protein in microsomes showed that TCS could react with cysteine residue of proteins through 3 types of RMs. Then, a 3D-LC-MS approach was developed to sensitively determine the low abundant modified proteins, which resulted in the identification of 45 TCS-modified proteins, including albumin, haptoglobin and NR1I2, in rats. STRING analysis indicated that these modified proteins mainly were involved in reproductive and development system, endocrine and immune system, and carcinogenesis, which were in accord with the main reported TCS-induced adverse effects and suggested that the covalent modification of TCS RMs for proteins might affect their activities and functions, thus inducing serious adverse effects. This study provided a new insight into the mechanism of TCS adverse effects and may serve as a valuable method to predict or evaluate adverse effects of ubiquitous chemicals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meixian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau
| | - Na Li
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau.
| | - Yida Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau
| | - Zhiyuan Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau
| | - Yue Zhuo
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau
| | - Baoqing Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Respiratory Disease, National Clinical Center for Respiratory Diseases, Guangzhou Institute of Respiratory Diseases, First Affiliated Hospital, Guangzhou Medical University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Li-Ping Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau
| | - Mingming Zhang
- Department of Gastroenterology, Drum Tower Hospital, Medical School of Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
| | - Ming-Quan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Sino-Africa Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Jian-Lin Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Quality Research in Chinese Medicine, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macau.
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15
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Yan X, Zhuo Y, Bian X, Li J, Zhang Y, Ma L, Lu G, Guo MQ, Wu JL, Li N. Integrated Proteomics, Biological Functional Assessments, and Metabolomics Reveal Toosendanin-Induced Hepatic Energy Metabolic Disorders. Chem Res Toxicol 2019; 32:668-680. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.8b00350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojing Yan
- State Key Laboratory for Quality Research of Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macao
- Changzhou Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, 25 Heping North Road, Changzhou 213003, China
| | - Yue Zhuo
- State Key Laboratory for Quality Research of Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macao
| | - Xiqing Bian
- State Key Laboratory for Quality Research of Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macao
| | - Jianmin Li
- State Key Laboratory for Quality Research of Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macao
| | - Yida Zhang
- State Key Laboratory for Quality Research of Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macao
| | - Lidong Ma
- State Key Laboratory for Quality Research of Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macao
| | - Guanghua Lu
- School of Ethnic Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Medicine, Chengdu 611137, China
| | - Ming-Quan Guo
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Sino-Africa Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Jian-Lin Wu
- State Key Laboratory for Quality Research of Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macao
| | - Na Li
- State Key Laboratory for Quality Research of Chinese Medicines, Macau University of Science and Technology, Avenida Wai Long, Taipa, Macao
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Deng J, Zhang X, Chen Z, Luo Y, Lu Y, Liu T, Wu Z, Jin Y, Zhao W, Lin B. A cell lines derived microfluidic liver model for investigation of hepatotoxicity induced by drug-drug interaction. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2019; 13:024101. [PMID: 31040885 PMCID: PMC6456354 DOI: 10.1063/1.5070088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2018] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The poor metabolic ability of cell lines fails to meet the requirements of an in vitro model for drug interaction testing which is crucial for the development or clinical application of drugs. Herein, we describe a liver sinusoid-on-a-chip device composed of four kinds of transformed cell lines (HepG2 cells, LX-2 cells, EAhy926 cells, and U937 cells) that were ordered in a physiological distribution with artificial liver blood flow and biliary efflux flowing in the opposite direction. This microfluidic device applied three-dimensional culturing of HepG2 cells with high density (107 ml-1), forming a tightly connected monolayer of EAhy926 cells and achieving the active transport of drugs in HepG2 cells. Results showed that the device maintained synthetic and secretory functions, preserved cytochrome P450 1A1/2 and uridine diphosphate glucuronyltransferase enzymatic activities, as well as sensitivity of drug metabolism. The cell lines derived device enables the investigation of a drug-drug interaction study. We used it to test the hepatotoxicity of acetaminophen and the following combinations: "acetaminophen + rifampicin," "acetaminophen + omeprazole," and "acetaminophen + ciprofloxacin." The variations in hepatotoxicity of the combinations compared to acetaminophen alone, which is not found in a 96-well plate model, in the device were -17.15%, 14.88%, and -19.74%. In addition, this result was similar to the one tested by the classical primary hepatocyte plate model (-13.22%, 13.51%, and -15.81%). Thus, this cell lines derived liver model provides an alternative to investigate drug hepatotoxicity, drug-drug interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiu Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Department of Chemical Engineering & School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Xiuli Zhang
- College of Pharmaceutical Science, Soochow University, Soochow 215123, China
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: ; ; and
| | - Zongzheng Chen
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China
| | - Yong Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Department of Chemical Engineering & School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: ; ; and
| | - Yao Lu
- Biotechnologhy Division, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116011, China
| | - Tingjiao Liu
- College of Stomatology, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Zhengzhi Wu
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China
| | - Yu Jin
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Shenzhen University, Shenzhen Second People's Hospital, Shenzhen 518035, China
| | - Weijie Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Department of Chemical Engineering & School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Bingcheng Lin
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: ; ; and
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