1
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Dunnington EL, Wong BS, Fu D. Innovative Approaches for Drug Discovery: Quantifying Drug Distribution and Response with Raman Imaging. Anal Chem 2024; 96:7926-7944. [PMID: 38625100 PMCID: PMC11108735 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c01413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Dan Fu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195, USA
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2
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Xin L, Huang M, Huang Z. Quantitative assessment and monitoring of microplastics and nanoplastics distributions and lipid metabolism in live zebrafish using hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering microscopy. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2024; 187:108679. [PMID: 38657405 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/19/2024] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Microplastics (MP) and nanoplastics (NP) pollutions pose a rising environmental threat to humans and other living species, given their escalating presence in essential resources that living subjects ingest and/or inhale. Herein, to elucidate the potential health implications of MP/NP, we report for the first time by using label-free hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) imaging technique developed to quantitatively monitor the bioaccumulation and metabolic toxicity of MP/NP within live zebrafish larvae during their early developmental stages. Zebrafish embryos are exposed to environmentally related concentrations (3-60 μg/ml) of polystyrene (PS) beads with two typical sizes (2 μm and 50 nm). Zebrafish are administered isotope-tagged fatty acids through microinjection and dietary intake for in vivo tracking of lipid metabolism dynamics. In vivo 3D quantitative vibrational imaging of PS beads and intrinsic biomolecules across key zebrafish organs reveals that gut and liver are the primary target organs of MP/NP, while only 50 nm PS beads readily aggregate and adhere to the brain and blood vessels. The 50 nm PS beads are also found to induce more pronounced hepatic inflammatory response compared to 2 μm counterparts, characterized by increased biogenesis of lipid droplets and upregulation of arachidonic acid detected in zebrafish liver. Furthermore, Raman-tagged SRS imaging of fatty acids uncovers that MP/NP exposure significantly reduces yolk lipid utilization and promotes dietary lipid storage in zebrafish, possibly associated with developmental delays and more pronounced food dilution effects in zebrafish larvae exposed to 2 μm PS beads. The hyperspectral SRS imaging in this work shows that MP/NP exposure perturbs the development and lipid metabolism in zebrafish larvae, furthering the understanding of MP/NP ingestions and consequent toxicity in different organs in living species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Xin
- Optical Bioimaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576, Singapore
| | - Meizhen Huang
- School of Electronic Information and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Zhiwei Huang
- Optical Bioimaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117576, Singapore.
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3
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Chadha R, Guerrero JA, Wei L, Sanchez LM. Seeing is Believing: Developing Multimodal Metabolic Insights at the Molecular Level. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2024; 10:758-774. [PMID: 38680555 PMCID: PMC11046475 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.3c01438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024]
Abstract
This outlook explores how two different molecular imaging approaches might be combined to gain insight into dynamic, subcellular metabolic processes. Specifically, we discuss how matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) and stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy, which have significantly pushed the boundaries of imaging metabolic and metabolomic analyses in their own right, could be combined to create comprehensive molecular images. We first briefly summarize the recent advances for each technique. We then explore how one might overcome the inherent limitations of each individual method, by envisioning orthogonal and interchangeable workflows. Additionally, we delve into the potential benefits of adopting a complementary approach that combines both MSI and SRS spectro-microscopy for informing on specific chemical structures through functional-group-specific targets. Ultimately, by integrating the strengths of both imaging modalities, researchers can achieve a more comprehensive understanding of biological and chemical systems, enabling precise metabolic investigations. This synergistic approach holds substantial promise to expand our toolkit for studying metabolites in complex environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahuljeet
S Chadha
- Division
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California
Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125 United States
| | - Jason A. Guerrero
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California, Santa Cruz, Santa
Cruz, California 95064 United States
| | - Lu Wei
- Division
of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California
Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125 United States
| | - Laura M. Sanchez
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of California, Santa Cruz, Santa
Cruz, California 95064 United States
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4
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Xin L, Luo Z, Liu X, Huang Z. Unveiling the Spatiotemporal and Dose Responses within a Single Live Cancer Cell to Photoswitchable Upconversion Nanoparticle Therapeutics Using Hybrid Hyperspectral Stimulated Raman Scattering and Transient Absorption Microscopy. Anal Chem 2024; 96:6148-6157. [PMID: 38603515 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.3c04898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/13/2024]
Abstract
Photodynamic therapy (PDT) provides an alternative approach to targeted cancer treatment, but the therapeutic mechanism of advanced nanodrugs applied to live cells and tissue is still not well understood. Herein, we employ the hybrid hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) and transient absorption (TA) microscopy developed for real-time in vivo visualization of the dynamic interplay between the unique photoswichable lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticle-conjugated rose bengal and triphenylphosphonium (LD-UCNP@CS-Rb-TPP) probe synthesized and live cancer cells. The Langmuir pharmacokinetic model associated with SRS/TA imaging is built to quantitatively track the uptakes and pharmacokinetics of LD-UCNP@CS-Rb-TPP within cancer cells. Rapid SRS/TA imaging quantifies the endocytic internalization rates of the LD-UCNP@CS-Rb-TPP probe in individual HeLa cells, and the translocation of LD-UCNP@CS-Rb-TPP from mitochondria to cell nuclei monitored during PDT can be associated with mitochondria fragmentations and the increased nuclear membrane permeability, cascading the dual organelle ablations in cancer cells. The real-time SRS spectral changes of cellular components (e.g., proteins, lipids, and DNA) observed reflect the PDT-induced oxidative damage and the dose-dependent death pattern within a single live cancer cell, thereby facilitating the real-time screening of optimal light dose and illumination duration controls in PDT. This study provides new insights into the further understanding of drug delivery and therapeutic mechanisms of photoswitchable LD-UCNP nanomedicine in live cancer cells, which are critical in the optimization of nanodrug formulations and development of precision cancer treatment in PDT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Xin
- Optical Bioimaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117576 Singapore
| | - Zichao Luo
- Department of Chemistry and the N.1 Institute for Health, National University of Singapore, 117543 Singapore
| | - Xiaogang Liu
- Department of Chemistry and the N.1 Institute for Health, National University of Singapore, 117543 Singapore
| | - Zhiwei Huang
- Optical Bioimaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Design and Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117576 Singapore
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5
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Ge Y, Yang Y, Zhu Y, Yuan M, Sun L, Jiang D, Liu X, Zhang Q, Zhang J, Wang Y. 2D TiS 2-Nanosheet-Coated Concave Gold Arrays with Triple-Coupled Resonances as Sensitive SERS Substrates. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2024; 20:e2302410. [PMID: 37635113 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202302410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
Herein, a hybrid substrate for surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) is fabricated, which couples localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR), charge transfer (CT) resonance, and molecular resonance. Exfoliated 2D TiS2 nanosheets with semimetallic properties accelerate the CT with the tested analytes, inducing a remarkable chemical mechanism enhancement. In addition, the LSPR effect is coupled with a concave gold array located underneath the thin TiS2 nanosheet, providing a strong electromagnetic enhancement. The concave gold array is prepared by etching silicone nanospheres assembled on larger polystyrene nanospheres, followed by depositing a gold layer. The LSPR intensity near the gold layer can be adjusted by changing the layer thickness to couple the molecular and CT resonances, in order to maximize the SERS enhancement. The best SERS performance is recorded on TiS2-nanosheet-coated plasmonic substrates, with a detectable methylene blue concentration down to 10-13 m and an enhancement factor of 2.1 × 109 and this concentration is several orders of magnitude lower than that of the TiS2 nanosheet (10-11 m) and plasmonic substrates (10-9 m). The present hybrid substrate with triple-coupled resonance further shows significant advantages in the label-free monitoring of curcumin (a widely applied drug for treating multiple cancers and inflammations) in serum and urine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuancai Ge
- School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Xueyuan Road 270, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Ying Yang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Xueyuan Road 270, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Yajie Zhu
- School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Xueyuan Road 270, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Meiling Yuan
- School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Xueyuan Road 270, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Liangbin Sun
- School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Xueyuan Road 270, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Danfeng Jiang
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jinlian Road 1, Wenzhou, 325001, China
| | - Xiaohu Liu
- School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Xueyuan Road 270, Wenzhou, 325027, China
| | - Qingwen Zhang
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jinlian Road 1, Wenzhou, 325001, China
| | - Jinyi Zhang
- Oujiang Laboratory (Zhejiang Lab for Regenerative Medicine, Vision and Brain Health), School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yi Wang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, School of Ophthalmology & Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Xueyuan Road 270, Wenzhou, 325027, China
- Wenzhou Institute, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Jinlian Road 1, Wenzhou, 325001, China
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6
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Zhou L, Feng RR, Zhang W, Gai F. Triple-Bond Vibrations: Emerging Applications in Energy and Biological Sciences. J Phys Chem Lett 2024; 15:187-200. [PMID: 38156972 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c02619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2024]
Abstract
Triple bonds, such as that formed between two carbon atoms (i.e., C≡C) or that formed between one carbon atom and one nitrogen atom (i.e., C≡N), afford unique chemical bonding and hence vibrational characteristics. As such, they are not only frequently used to construct molecules with tailored chemical and/or physical properties but also employed as vibrational probes to provide site-specific chemical and/or physical information at the molecular level. Herein, we offer our perspective on the emerging applications of various triple-bond vibrations in energy and biological sciences with a focus on C≡C and C≡N triple bonds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Zhou
- Department of Physics and Applied Optics Beijing Area Major Laboratory, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Ran-Ran Feng
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Wenkai Zhang
- Department of Physics and Applied Optics Beijing Area Major Laboratory, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Feng Gai
- Beijing National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
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7
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Zhu H, Chen B, Yakovlev VV, Zhang D. Time-resolved vibrational dynamics: Novel opportunities for sensing and imaging. Talanta 2024; 266:125046. [PMID: 37595525 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2023.125046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 08/05/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
The evolution of time-resolved spectroscopies has resulted in significant advancements across numerous scientific disciplines, particularly those concerned with molecular electronic states. However, the intricacy of molecular vibrational spectroscopies, which provide comprehensive molecular-level information within complex structures, has presented considerable challenges due to the ultrashort dephasing time. Over recent decades, an increasing focus has been placed on exploring the temporal progression of bond vibrations, thereby facilitating an improved understanding of energy redistribution within and between molecules. This review article focuses on an array of time-resolved detection methodologies, each distinguished by unique technological attributes that offer exclusive capabilities for investigating the physical phenomena propelled by molecular vibrational dynamics. In summary, time-resolved vibrational spectroscopy emerges as a potent instrument for deciphering the dynamic behavior of molecules. Its potential for driving future progress across fields as diverse as biology and materials science is substantial, marking a promising future for this innovative tool.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanlin Zhu
- Interdisciplinary Center for Quantum Information, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Quantum Technology and Device, and Department of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310028, China.
| | - Bo Chen
- Interdisciplinary Center for Quantum Information, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Quantum Technology and Device, and Department of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310028, China.
| | - Vladislav V Yakovlev
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA; Department of Physics and Astronomy, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
| | - Delong Zhang
- Interdisciplinary Center for Quantum Information, Zhejiang Province Key Laboratory of Quantum Technology and Device, and Department of Physics, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, 310028, China.
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8
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Saunders C, Foote JEJ, Wojciechowski JP, Cammack A, Pedersen SV, Doutch JJ, Barriga HMG, Holme MN, Penders J, Chami M, Najer A, Stevens MM. Revealing Population Heterogeneity in Vesicle-Based Nanomedicines Using Automated, Single Particle Raman Analysis. ACS NANO 2023; 17:11713-11728. [PMID: 37279338 PMCID: PMC10311594 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c02452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The intrinsic heterogeneity of many nanoformulations is currently challenging to characterize on both the single particle and population level. Therefore, there is great opportunity to develop advanced techniques to describe and understand nanomedicine heterogeneity, which will aid translation to the clinic by informing manufacturing quality control, characterization for regulatory bodies, and connecting nanoformulation properties to clinical outcomes to enable rational design. Here, we present an analytical technique to provide such information, while measuring the nanocarrier and cargo simultaneously with label-free, nondestructive single particle automated Raman trapping analysis (SPARTA). We first synthesized a library of model compounds covering a range of hydrophilicities and providing distinct Raman signals. These compounds were then loaded into model nanovesicles (polymersomes) that can load both hydrophobic and hydrophilic cargo into the membrane or core regions, respectively. Using our analytical framework, we characterized the heterogeneity of the population by correlating the signal per particle from the membrane and cargo. We found that core and membrane loading can be distinguished, and we detected subpopulations of highly loaded particles in certain cases. We then confirmed the suitability of our technique in liposomes, another nanovesicle class, including the commercial formulation Doxil. Our label-free analytical technique precisely determines cargo location alongside loading and release heterogeneity in nanomedicines, which could be instrumental for future quality control, regulatory body protocols, and development of structure-function relationships to bring more nanomedicines to the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Saunders
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - James E. J. Foote
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Jonathan P. Wojciechowski
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Ana Cammack
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Simon V. Pedersen
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - James J. Doutch
- ISIS
Neutron and Muon Source, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Science and Technology Facilities Council, Didcot OX11 ODE, United Kingdom
| | - Hanna M. G. Barriga
- Department
of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Margaret N. Holme
- Department
of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jelle Penders
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Mohamed Chami
- BioEM
Lab, Biozentrum, University of Basel, Mattenstrasse 26, 4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Adrian Najer
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | - Molly M. Stevens
- Department
of Materials, Department of Bioengineering, and Institute of Biomedical
Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
- Department
of Medical Biochemistry and Biophysics, Karolinska Institutet, SE-171 77 Stockholm, Sweden
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9
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Luo Y, Naidu R, Fang C. Accelerated transformation of plastic furniture into microplastics and nanoplastics by fire. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 317:120737. [PMID: 36436658 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120737] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2022] [Revised: 11/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Numerous plastic items are known to gradually degrade and release microplastics and nanoplastics under certain conditions, which can be significantly accelerated by fire combustion. Unfortunately there is a limited knowledge about this burning process because the characterisation on microplastics and nanoplastics is still a challenge. In this study, an outdoor plastic chair is subjected to a combustion process, the change in the surface functional groups (due to different degree of burning) and the release of microplastics and nanoplastics are investigated. During the combustion process, the plastic is molten, burned and deposited on solid surfaces including concrete, stone and glass. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results show that the peeling off the deposited plastic generates a large number of fragments. Through Raman imaging, these fragments are characterised as polypropylene (PP) microplastics and nanoplastics due to appearance of characteristic peaks. To further increase the sensitivity, several algorithms are tested and optimised, including logic-based, non-supervised principal component analysis (PCA)-based, algebra-based and their hybrids (to intentionally correct the non-supervised PCA) to enable the effective extraction of the key information towards plastics characterisation, particularly by distinguishing the signal from the background noise towards the visualisation of the different degrees of burning. Based on the findings from Raman imaging and SEM, it is estimated that tens of microplastics and nanoplastics are created per μm2. Overall Raman imaging can be a suitable approach to characterise the microplastics and nanoplastics in a complex background, such as the fire-burned plastic items.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunlong Luo
- Global Centre for Environmental Remediation (GCER), University of Newcastle, Callaghan NSW, 2308, Australia; Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE), University of Newcastle, Callaghan NSW, 2308, Australia
| | - Ravi Naidu
- Global Centre for Environmental Remediation (GCER), University of Newcastle, Callaghan NSW, 2308, Australia; Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE), University of Newcastle, Callaghan NSW, 2308, Australia
| | - Cheng Fang
- Global Centre for Environmental Remediation (GCER), University of Newcastle, Callaghan NSW, 2308, Australia; Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE), University of Newcastle, Callaghan NSW, 2308, Australia.
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10
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Manifold B, Fu D. Quantitative Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy: Promises and Pitfalls. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2022; 15:269-289. [PMID: 35300525 PMCID: PMC10083020 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-061020-015110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Since its first demonstration, stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy has become a powerful chemical imaging tool that shows promise in numerous biological and biomedical applications. The spectroscopic capability of SRS enables identification and tracking of specific molecules or classes of molecules, often without labeling. SRS microscopy also has the hallmark advantage of signal strength that is directly proportional to molecular concentration, allowing for in situ quantitative analysis of chemical composition of heterogeneous samples with submicron spatial resolution and subminute temporal resolution. However, it is important to recognize that quantification through SRS microscopy requires assumptions regarding both system and sample. Such assumptions are often taken axiomatically, which may lead to erroneous conclusions without proper validation. In this review, we focus on the tacitly accepted, yet complex, quantitative aspect of SRS microscopy. We discuss the various approaches to quantitative analysis, examples of such approaches, challenges in different systems, and potential solutions. Through our examination of published literature, we conclude that a scrupulous approach to experimental design can further expand the powerful and incisive quantitative capabilities of SRS microscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryce Manifold
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA;
| | - Dan Fu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA;
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11
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Brzozowski K, Matuszyk E, Pieczara A, Firlej J, Nowakowska AM, Baranska M. Stimulated Raman scattering microscopy in chemistry and life science - Development, innovation, perspectives. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 60:108003. [PMID: 35690271 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.108003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In this review, we present a summary of the basics of the Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS) phenomenon, methods of detecting the signal, and collection of the SRS images. We demonstrate the advantages of SRS imaging, and recent developments, but also the limitations, especially in image capture speeds and spatial resolution. We also compare the use of SRS microscopy in biological system studies with other techniques such as fluorescence microscopy, second-harmonic generation (SHG)-based microscopy, coherent anti-Stokes Raman scattering (CARS), and spontaneous Raman, and we show the compatibility of SRS-based systems with other discussed methods. The review is also focused on indicating innovations in SRS microscopy, on the background of which we present the layout and performance of our homemade setup built from commercially available elements enabling for imaging of the molecular structure of single cells over the spectral range of 800-3600 cm-1. Methods of image analysis are discussed, including machine learning methods for obtaining images of the distribution of selected molecules and for the detection of pathological lesions in tissues or malignant cells in the context of clinical diagnosis of a wide range of diseases with the use of SRS microscopy. Finally, perspectives for the development of SRS microscopy are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Brzozowski
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, 2 Gronostajowa Str., 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - E Matuszyk
- Jagiellonian Centre for Experimental Therapeutics (JCET), Jagiellonian University, 14 Bobrzynskiego Str., 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - A Pieczara
- Jagiellonian Centre for Experimental Therapeutics (JCET), Jagiellonian University, 14 Bobrzynskiego Str., 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - J Firlej
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, 2 Gronostajowa Str., 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - A M Nowakowska
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, 2 Gronostajowa Str., 30-387 Krakow, Poland
| | - M Baranska
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, 2 Gronostajowa Str., 30-387 Krakow, Poland; Jagiellonian Centre for Experimental Therapeutics (JCET), Jagiellonian University, 14 Bobrzynskiego Str., 30-348 Krakow, Poland.
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12
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Hilzenrat G, Gill ET, McArthur SL. Imaging approaches for monitoring three-dimensional cell and tissue culture systems. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2022; 15:e202100380. [PMID: 35357086 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202100380] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The past decade has seen an increasing demand for more complex, reproducible and physiologically relevant tissue cultures that can mimic the structural and biological features of living tissues. Monitoring the viability, development and responses of such tissues in real-time are challenging due to the complexities of cell culture physical characteristics and the environments in which these cultures need to be maintained in. Significant developments in optics, such as optical manipulation, improved detection and data analysis, have made optical imaging a preferred choice for many three-dimensional (3D) cell culture monitoring applications. The aim of this review is to discuss the challenges associated with imaging and monitoring 3D tissues and cell culture, and highlight topical label-free imaging tools that enable bioengineers and biophysicists to non-invasively characterise engineered living tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geva Hilzenrat
- Bioengineering Engineering Group, School of Science, Computing and Engineering Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
- Biomedical Manufacturing, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Emma T Gill
- Bioengineering Engineering Group, School of Science, Computing and Engineering Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
- Biomedical Manufacturing, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sally L McArthur
- Bioengineering Engineering Group, School of Science, Computing and Engineering Technologies, Swinburne University of Technology, Hawthorn, Victoria, Australia
- Biomedical Manufacturing, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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13
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Mahalaxmi G, Ashok S, Arun G, Srinivas G. Albumin binds to uncoupler CCCP to diminish depolarization of mitochondria. Toxicol In Vitro 2022; 80:105325. [PMID: 35121064 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2022.105325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mitochondria are at the core of cellular energy metabolism and are also involved in the oxidative stress response and programmed cell death pathways. Mitochondrial dysfunction is found to be associated with many disease conditions like metabolic syndrome, neurodegenerative disorders, coronary artery diseases, cancer, etc. This has generated considerable interest in the scientific community over the assessment of mitochondrial function and mitochondrial damage. One of the most common methodologies in these studies is by analysing the mitochondrial activity in the presence of mitochondrial substrates, inhibitors and uncouplers. Apart from the specific effects of these molecules on mitochondria, their interactions with the components of the experimental system could interfere with the results derived. Therefore, the role some specific experimental conditions would have on the outcome should be carefully elucidated. Fetal Bovine Serum or Bovine Serum Albumin (BSA); routinely used in in vitro experiments for their growth promoting and surfactant properties; can have profound impact on the pharmacokinetics of chemical compounds as albumin residue can bind to and affect their bioavailability. In the present study, we demonstrate that Carbonyl cyanide 3-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP) induced mitochondrial depolarization is hindered in the presence of albumin due to the molecular interaction between CCCP and albumin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganjoo Mahalaxmi
- Department of Biochemistry, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum 695011, Kerala, India
| | - Sivasailam Ashok
- Department of Biochemistry, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum 695011, Kerala, India
| | - Gangadharan Arun
- Department of Biotechnology and Microbiology, Kannur University, Kerala, India
| | - Gopala Srinivas
- Department of Biochemistry, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum 695011, Kerala, India.
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14
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El-Mashtoly SF, Gerwert K. Diagnostics and Therapy Assessment Using Label-Free Raman Imaging. Anal Chem 2021; 94:120-142. [PMID: 34852454 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.1c04483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Samir F El-Mashtoly
- Center for Protein Diagnostics, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany.,Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany
| | - Klaus Gerwert
- Center for Protein Diagnostics, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany.,Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, Ruhr University Bochum, 44801 Bochum, Germany
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15
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Bakthavatsalam S, Dodo K, Sodeoka M. A decade of alkyne-tag Raman imaging (ATRI): applications in biological systems. RSC Chem Biol 2021; 2:1415-1429. [PMID: 34704046 PMCID: PMC8496067 DOI: 10.1039/d1cb00116g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 07/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Alkyne functional groups have Raman signatures in a region (1800 cm-1 to 2800 cm-1) that is free from interference from cell components, known as the "silent region", and alkyne signals in this region were first utilized a decade ago to visualize the nuclear localization of a thymidine analogue EdU. Since then, the strategy of Raman imaging of biological samples by using alkyne functional groups, called alkyne-tag Raman imaging (ATRI), has become widely used. This article reviews the applications of ATRI in biological samples ranging from organelles to whole animal models, and briefly discusses the prospects for this technique.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subha Bakthavatsalam
- Synthetic Organic Chemistry Laboratory, RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research Wako Saitama 351-0198 Japan
| | - Kosuke Dodo
- Synthetic Organic Chemistry Laboratory, RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research Wako Saitama 351-0198 Japan
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science 2-1 Hirosawa Wako Saitama 351-0198 Japan
| | - Mikiko Sodeoka
- Synthetic Organic Chemistry Laboratory, RIKEN Cluster for Pioneering Research Wako Saitama 351-0198 Japan
- RIKEN Center for Sustainable Resource Science 2-1 Hirosawa Wako Saitama 351-0198 Japan
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16
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Lima C, Muhamadali H, Goodacre R. The Role of Raman Spectroscopy Within Quantitative Metabolomics. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2021; 14:323-345. [PMID: 33826853 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-091420-092323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Ninety-four years have passed since the discovery of the Raman effect, and there are currently more than 25 different types of Raman-based techniques. The past two decades have witnessed the blossoming of Raman spectroscopy as a powerful physicochemical technique with broad applications within the life sciences. In this review, we critique the use of Raman spectroscopy as a tool for quantitative metabolomics. We overview recent developments of Raman spectroscopy for identification and quantification of disease biomarkers in liquid biopsies, with a focus on the recent advances within surface-enhanced Raman scattering-based methods. Ultimately, we discuss the applications of imaging modalities based on Raman scattering as label-free methods to study the abundance and distribution of biomolecules in cells and tissues, including mammalian, algal, and bacterial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassio Lima
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular, and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom;
| | - Howbeer Muhamadali
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular, and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom;
| | - Royston Goodacre
- Department of Biochemistry and Systems Biology, Institute of Systems, Molecular, and Integrative Biology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZB, United Kingdom;
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17
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Switchable stimulated Raman scattering microscopy with photochromic vibrational probes. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3089. [PMID: 34035304 PMCID: PMC8149663 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23407-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2020] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Photochromic probes with reversible fluorescence have revolutionized the fields of single molecule spectroscopy and super-resolution microscopy, but lack sufficient chemical specificity. In contrast, Raman probes with stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy provides superb chemical resolution for super-multiplexed imaging, but are relatively inert. Here we report vibrational photochromism by engineering alkyne tagged diarylethene to realize photo-switchable SRS imaging. The narrow Raman peak of the alkyne group shifts reversibly upon photoisomerization of the conjugated diarylethene when irradiated by ultraviolet (UV) or visible light, yielding “on” or “off” SRS images taken at the photoactive Raman frequency. We demonstrated photo-rewritable patterning and encryption on thin films, painting/erasing of cells with labelled alkyne-diarylethene, as well as pulse-chase experiments of mitochondria diffusion in living cells. The design principle provides potentials for super-resolution microscopy, optical memories and switches with vibrational specificity. Probes with reversible fluorescence are useful in super-resolution microscopy, but lack sufficient chemical specificity. Here, the authors engineer alkyne tagged diarylethene to realize photo-switchable stimulated Raman scattering probes with high chemical resolution, for applications in living cells.
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18
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Adamczyk A, Matuszyk E, Radwan B, Rocchetti S, Chlopicki S, Baranska M. Toward Raman Subcellular Imaging of Endothelial Dysfunction. J Med Chem 2021; 64:4396-4409. [PMID: 33821652 PMCID: PMC8154563 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
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Multiple diseases are at some point associated with altered endothelial
function, and endothelial dysfunction (ED) contributes to their pathophysiology.
Biochemical changes of the dysfunctional endothelium are linked to
various cellular organelles, including the mitochondria, endoplasmic
reticulum, and nucleus, so organelle-specific insight is needed for
better understanding of endothelial pathobiology. Raman imaging, which
combines chemical specificity with microscopic resolution, has proved
to be useful in detecting biochemical changes in ED at the cellular
level. However, the detection of spectroscopic markers associated
with specific cell organelles, while desirable, cannot easily be achieved
by Raman imaging without labeling. This critical review summarizes
the current advances in Raman-based analysis of ED, with a focus on
a new approach involving molecular Raman reporters that could facilitate
the study of biochemical changes in cellular organelles. Finally,
imaging techniques based on both conventional spontaneous Raman scattering
and the emerging technique of stimulated Raman scattering are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriana Adamczyk
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, 2 Gronostajowa Str., 30-387 Krakow, Poland.,Jagiellonian Centre for Experimental Therapeutics (JCET), Jagiellonian University, 14 Bobrzynskiego Str., 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Ewelina Matuszyk
- Jagiellonian Centre for Experimental Therapeutics (JCET), Jagiellonian University, 14 Bobrzynskiego Str., 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Basseem Radwan
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, 2 Gronostajowa Str., 30-387 Krakow, Poland.,Jagiellonian Centre for Experimental Therapeutics (JCET), Jagiellonian University, 14 Bobrzynskiego Str., 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Stefano Rocchetti
- Jagiellonian Centre for Experimental Therapeutics (JCET), Jagiellonian University, 14 Bobrzynskiego Str., 30-348 Krakow, Poland
| | - Stefan Chlopicki
- Jagiellonian Centre for Experimental Therapeutics (JCET), Jagiellonian University, 14 Bobrzynskiego Str., 30-348 Krakow, Poland.,Chair of Pharmacology, Jagiellonian University, 16 Grzegorzecka Str., 31-531 Krakow, Poland
| | - Malgorzata Baranska
- Faculty of Chemistry, Jagiellonian University, 2 Gronostajowa Str., 30-387 Krakow, Poland.,Jagiellonian Centre for Experimental Therapeutics (JCET), Jagiellonian University, 14 Bobrzynskiego Str., 30-348 Krakow, Poland
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19
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Zeng J, Zhao W, Yue S. Coherent Raman Scattering Microscopy in Oncology Pharmacokinetic Research. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:630167. [PMID: 33613294 PMCID: PMC7887381 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.630167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The high attrition rates of anti-cancer drugs during clinical development remains a bottleneck problem in pharmaceutical industry. This is partially due to the lack of quantitative, selective, and rapid readouts of anti-cancer drug activity in situ with high resolution. Although fluorescence microscopy has been commonly used in oncology pharmacological research, fluorescent labels are often too large in size for small drug molecules, and thus may disturb the function or metabolism of these molecules. Such challenge can be overcome by coherent Raman scattering microscopy, which is capable of chemically selective, highly sensitive, high spatial resolution, and high-speed imaging, without the need of any labeling. Coherent Raman scattering microscopy has tremendously improved the understanding of pharmaceutical materials in the solid state, pharmacokinetics of anti-cancer drugs and nanocarriers in vitro and in vivo. This review focuses on the latest applications of coherent Raman scattering microscopy as a new emerging platform to facilitate oncology pharmacokinetic research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Zeng
- Institute of Medical Photonics, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Wenying Zhao
- Institute of Medical Photonics, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Shuhua Yue
- Institute of Medical Photonics, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China.,Wuhan National Laboratory for Optoelectronics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
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20
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Bae K, Xin L, Zheng W, Tang C, Ang BT, Huang Z. Mapping the Intratumoral Heterogeneity in Glioblastomas with Hyperspectral Stimulated Raman Scattering Microscopy. Anal Chem 2021; 93:2377-2384. [PMID: 33443405 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c04262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Recent genomic studies on the glioblastoma (GBM) subtypes (e.g., mesenchymal, proneural, and classical) pave a way for effective clinical treatments of the recurrent brain tumor. However, identification of the GBM subtype is complicated by the intratumoral heterogeneity that results in coexistence of multiple subtypes within the tissue specimen. Here, we present the use of hyperspectral stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy for rapid, label-free molecular assessment of GBM intratumoral heterogeneity with submicron resolution. We develop a unique label-free Raman imaging diagnostic platform consisting of the spectral focusing hyperspectral SRS imaging of the large-area GBM tissue specimens, SRS images, and spectrum retrieval using the multivariate curve resolution algorithm and subtype classification based on the quadratic support vector machine model for rapid molecular subtyping of GBMs. Both the stain-free SRS histological images and 2D subtype maps can be obtained within 20-30 min which is superior to the days of the conventional single-cell RNA sequencing. While the SRS histology assesses the demyelination status as a new diagnostic feature, the SRS mapping provides a new insight into intratumoral heterogeneity across GBM tissue specimens. We find that the major proportions of the GBM tissues agree with the diagnostic results of the genomic analysis, but nontrivial portions of the remaining SRS image tiles in the specimens are found to belong to other molecular subtypes, implying the substantial degree of GBM heterogeneity. The rapid SRS imaging diagnostic platform developed has shown the ability of unveiling tumor heterogeneity in GBM tissues accurately, which would promote the improvement of the GBM-targeted therapy in near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kideog Bae
- Optical Bioimaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117576, Singapore
| | - Le Xin
- Optical Bioimaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117576, Singapore
| | - Wei Zheng
- Optical Bioimaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117576, Singapore
| | - Carol Tang
- National Neuroscience Institute, 308433, Singapore.,School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University, 637551, Singapore.,Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, 169857, Singapore
| | - Beng-Ti Ang
- National Neuroscience Institute, 308433, Singapore.,Duke-National University of Singapore Medical School, 169857, Singapore
| | - Zhiwei Huang
- Optical Bioimaging Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, National University of Singapore, 117576, Singapore
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21
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22
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Azemtsop Matanfack G, Rüger J, Stiebing C, Schmitt M, Popp J. Imaging the invisible-Bioorthogonal Raman probes for imaging of cells and tissues. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2020; 13:e202000129. [PMID: 32475014 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202000129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2020] [Revised: 05/09/2020] [Accepted: 05/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
A revolutionary avenue for vibrational imaging with super-multiplexing capability can be seen in the recent development of Raman-active bioortogonal tags or labels. These tags and isotopic labels represent groups of chemically inert and small modifications, which can be introduced to any biomolecule of interest and then supplied to single cells or entire organisms. Recent developments in the field of spontaneous Raman spectroscopy and stimulated Raman spectroscopy in combination with targeted imaging of biomolecules within living systems are the main focus of this review. After having introduced common strategies for bioorthogonal labeling, we present applications thereof for profiling of resistance patterns in bacterial cells, investigations of pharmaceutical drug-cell interactions in eukaryotic cells and cancer diagnosis in whole tissue samples. Ultimately, this approach proves to be a flexible and robust tool for in vivo imaging on several length scales and provides comparable information as fluorescence-based imaging without the need of bulky fluorescent tags.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgette Azemtsop Matanfack
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics (IPC), Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology - a member of the Leibniz Research Alliance Leibniz Health Technology (Leibniz-IPHT), Jena, Germany
- Research Campus Infectognostics e.V., Jena, Germany
| | - Jan Rüger
- Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology - a member of the Leibniz Research Alliance Leibniz Health Technology (Leibniz-IPHT), Jena, Germany
| | - Clara Stiebing
- Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology - a member of the Leibniz Research Alliance Leibniz Health Technology (Leibniz-IPHT), Jena, Germany
| | - Michael Schmitt
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics (IPC), Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology - a member of the Leibniz Research Alliance Leibniz Health Technology (Leibniz-IPHT), Jena, Germany
- Research Campus Infectognostics e.V., Jena, Germany
| | - Jürgen Popp
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Abbe Center of Photonics (IPC), Friedrich-Schiller-University Jena, Jena, Germany
- Leibniz Institute of Photonic Technology - a member of the Leibniz Research Alliance Leibniz Health Technology (Leibniz-IPHT), Jena, Germany
- Research Campus Infectognostics e.V., Jena, Germany
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