Structures of Pseudomonas aeruginosa LpxA Reveal the Basis for Its Substrate Selectivity

The role of the essential GTPase ObgE in regulating lipopolysaccharide synthesis in Escherichia coli

During growth, cells need to synthesize and expand their envelope, a process that requires careful regulation. Here, we show that the GTPase ObgE of E. coli contributes to the regulation of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) synthesis, an essential component of the Gram-negative outer membrane. Using a dominant-negative mutant (named 'ObgE*'), we show a direct interaction between ObgE and LpxA, which catalyzes the first step in LPS synthesis. This interaction is enhanced by the mutation in ObgE* which, when bound to GTP, leads to inhibition of LpxA, decreased LPS synthesis, and cell death. Although wild-type ObgE does not exert the same strong effects as ObgE* on LpxA or LPS synthesis, our data indicate that ObgE participates in the regulation of cell envelope synthesis in E. coli. Because ObgE also influences other cellular functions (i.e., ribosome assembly, DNA replication, etc.), it seems increasingly plausible that this GTPase coordinates several processes to finetune cell growth.

Development of Fragment-Based Inhibitors of the Bacterial Deacetylase LpxC with Low Nanomolar Activity

In a fragment-based approach using NMR spectroscopy, benzyloxyacetohydroxamic acid-derived inhibitors of the bacterial deacetylase LpxC bearing a substituent to target the uridine diphosphate-binding site of the enzyme were developed. By appending privileged fragments via a suitable linker, potent LpxC inhibitors with promising antibacterial activities could be obtained, like the one-digit nanomolar LpxC inhibitor (S)-13j [Ki (EcLpxC C63A) = 9.5 nM; Ki (PaLpxC): 5.6 nM]. To rationalize the observed structure-activity relationships, molecular docking and molecular dynamics studies were performed. Initial in vitro absorption-distribution-metabolism-excretion-toxicity (ADMET) studies of the most potent compounds have paved the way for multiparameter optimization of our newly developed isoserine-based amides.

Exploring marine-derived bioactive compounds for dual inhibition of Pseudomonas aeruginosa LpxA and LpxD: integrated bioinformatics and cheminformatics approaches

Pseudomonas aeruginosa can cause serious nosocomial infections. Targeting the biosynthesis of Lipid A, a major structural domain of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in P. aeruginosa has emerged as a valuable strategy for developing novel therapeutic agents. The biosynthesis of Lipid A involves the activation of homolog enzymes including LpxA and LpxD. LpxA enzyme facilitates the transfer of R-3-hydroxydecanoic fatty acid to uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine in the first step. While LPxD is accountable in third step, wherein R-3-hydroxydodecanoate is transferred to the 2' amine of UDP-3-O-(3-hydroxydecanoyl) utilizing an ACP donor. The exploration of LpxA and LpxD has been largely neglected, as no specific small-molecule inhibitors have been identified, thus far, except for peptide inhibitors. Here, we report the identification of potential dual inhibitors of the lipid A biosynthesis pathway that target both the LpxA and LpxD enzymes as novel antibiotic agents. Among the virtually screened 32,000 marine bioactive compounds Oscillatoxin A, NCI60_041046, and LTS0192263 exhibited optimal docking interactions with LpxA and LpxD, respectively. MD simulation and MMPBSA data showcased stable interactions between selected marine products and LpxA/LpxD. FMO analysis showed that Oscillatoxin A and NCI60_041046 are the most chemically active molecules. MEP analysis data highlighted the possible electrophilic and nucleophilic distribution zones present in the structure. In addition, these bioactive molecules showed acceptable ADMET profiles. These data confirmed that Oscillatoxin A, NCI60_041046, and LTS0192263 could serve as seeds for the development of potential therapeutics to combat P. aeruginosa infection.

Targeting LPS biosynthesis and transport in gram-negative bacteria in the era of multi-drug resistance

Gram-negative bacteria pose a major threat to human health in an era fraught with multi-drug resistant bacterial infections. Despite extensive drug discovery campaigns over the past decades, no new antibiotic target class effective against gram-negative bacteria has become available to patients since the advent of the carbapenems in 1985. Antibiotic discovery efforts against gram-negative bacteria have been hampered by limited intracellular accumulation of xenobiotics, in large part due to the impermeable cell envelope comprising lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in the outer leaflet of the outer membrane, as well as a panoply of efflux pumps. The biosynthesis and transport of LPS are essential to the viability and virulence of most gram-negative bacteria. Thus, both LPS biosynthesis and transport are attractive pathways to target therapeutically. In this review, we summarize the LPS biosynthesis and transport pathways and discuss efforts to find small molecule inhibitors against targets within these pathways.

Reducing the endotoxic activity or enhancing the vaccine immunogenicity by altering the length of lipid A acyl chain in Salmonella

The balance of the attenuation and reactogenicity is an issue in the development of recombinant attenuated Salmonella vaccines (RASV). Some reactogenic strains produced side effects are partially induced by lipid A. As reported, the number of lipid A acyl chains influence the strength and outcome of immune responses. However, there is rarely any study to investigate the modifications of acyl chain length on the effect of the toxicity and immunogenicity in Salmonella. In this study, foreign acyltransferase genes lpxA and lpxD were introduced into S. Typhimurium, which produced the S006 (ΔaraBAD::P_lppCtlpxA_C10) or S007 (ΔproBA::P_lppSslpxD_C16) strains with C10 or C16 acyl chains respectively. The results showed that the increased polymyxin B susceptibility, reduced swimming and invasion capabilities were observed in the S006. In addition, it also exhibited a lower endotoxicity and colonization ability compared to the parent strain. The result indicated the introduction of C10 acyl chains could be as a candidate choice for lipid A detoxifying strategy in engineering bacteria. However, the longer acyl chain modification didn't obviously change these abilities. Parallelly, these modifications were introduced into a Salmonella vaccine strain to determine their influences on the immune responses against Pneumonia. After inoculation by the strain V003 (ΔaraBAD ΔproBA::P_lppSslpxD_C16 χ9241), the mice produced robust levels of anti-PspA IgG, and a balanced Th1/Th2 immunity, which resulted in a significant survival improvement of mice with challenging against Streptococcus pneumonia. Therefore, the combination of lipid A modification with C16 acyl chain may be a better strategy for the development of ideal RASVs.

Investigation of the enzymes required for the biosynthesis of 2,3-diacetamido-2,3-dideoxy-d-glucuronic acid in Psychrobacter cryohalolentis K5T

Psychrobacter cryohalolentis K5T is a Gram-negative bacterium first isolated from Siberian permafrost in 2006. It has a complex O-antigen containing l-rhamnose, d-galactose, two diacetamido-sugars, and one triacetamido-sugar. The biosynthetic pathway for one of the diacetamido-sugars, namely 2,3-diacetamido-2,3-dideoxy-d-glucuronic acid, is presently unknown. Utilizing the published genome sequence of P. cryohalolentis K5T , we hypothesized that the genes designated Pcryo_0613, Pcryo_0614, Pcryo_0616, and Pcryo_0615 encode for a uridine dinucleotide (UDP)-N-acetyl-d-glucosamine 6-dehydrogenase, an nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (oxidized) (NAD+ )-dependent dehydrogenase, a pyridoxal 5'-phosphate (PLP)-dependent aminotransferase, and an N-acetyltransferase, respectively, activities of which would be required for the biosynthesis of this unusual carbohydrate. Here we present the cloning, overexpression, and purification of these hypothetical proteins. Kinetic data on the enzymes encoded by Pcryo_0613, Pcryo_0614, and Pcryo_0615 confirmed their postulated biochemical activities. In addition, the high-resolution X-ray structures of both the internal and external aldimine forms of the aminotransferase were determined to 1.25 and 1.0 Å, respectively. Finally, the three-dimensional architecture of the N-acetyltransferase in complex with its substrate and coenzyme A was solved to 1.8 Å resolution. Strikingly, the N-acetyltransferase was shown to adopt a new motif for UDP-sugar binding. The data presented herein provide additional insight into sugar biosynthesis in Gram-negative bacteria.

Structure-Based Ligand Design Targeting Pseudomonas aeruginosa LpxA in Lipid A Biosynthesis

Enzymes involved in lipid A biosynthesis are promising antibacterial drug targets in Gram-negative bacteria. In this study, we use a structure-based design approach to develop a series of novel tetrazole ligands with low μM affinity for LpxA, the first enzyme in the lipid A pathway. Aided by previous structural data, X-ray crystallography, and surface plasmon resonance bioanalysis, we identify 17 hit compounds. Two of these hits were subsequently modified to optimize interactions with three regions of the LpxA active site. This strategy ultimately led to the discovery of ligand L13, which had a K_D of 3.0 μM. The results reveal new chemical scaffolds as potential LpxA inhibitors, important binding features for ligand optimization, and protein conformational changes in response to ligand binding. Specifically, they show that a tetrazole ring is well-accommodated in a small cleft formed between Met169, the "hydrophobic-ruler" and His156, both of which demonstrate significant conformational flexibility. Furthermore, we find that the acyl-chain binding pocket is the most tractable region of the active site for realizing affinity gains and, along with a neighboring patch of hydrophobic residues, preferentially binds aliphatic and aromatic groups. The results presented herein provide valuable chemical and structural information for future inhibitor discovery against this important antibacterial drug target.

DbStRiPs: Database of structural repeats in proteins

Recent interest in repeat proteins has arisen due to stable structural folds, high evolutionary conservation and repertoire of functions provided by these proteins. However, repeat proteins are poorly characterized because of high sequence variation between repeating units and structure-based identification and classification of repeats is desirable. Using a robust network-based pipeline, manual curation and Kajava's structure-based classification schema, we have developed a database of tandem structural repeats, Database of Structural Repeats in Proteins (DbStRiPs). A unique feature of this database is that available knowledge on sequence repeat families is incorporated by mapping Pfam classification scheme onto structural classification. Integration of sequence and structure-based classifications help in identifying different functional groups within the same structural subclass, leading to refinement in the annotation of repeat proteins. Analysis of complete Protein Data Bank revealed 16,472 repeat annotations in 15,141 protein chains, one previously uncharacterized novel protein repeat family (PRF), named left-handed beta helix, and 33 protein repeat clusters (PRCs). Based on their unique structural motif, ~79% of these repeat proteins are classified in one of the 14 PRFs or 33 PRCs, and the remaining are grouped as unclassified repeat proteins. Each repeat protein is provided with a detailed annotation in DbStRiPs that includes start and end boundaries of repeating units, copy number, secondary and tertiary structure view, repeat class/subclass, disease association, MSA of repeating units and cross-references to various protein pattern databases, human protein atlas and interaction resources. DbStRiPs provides easy search and download options to high-quality annotations of structural repeat proteins (URL: http://bioinf.iiit.ac.in/dbstrips/).

Discovery of Novel UDP-N-Acetylglucosamine Acyltransferase (LpxA) Inhibitors with Activity against Pseudomonas aeruginosa

This study describes a novel series of UDP-N-acetylglucosamine acyltransferase (LpxA) inhibitors that was identified through affinity-mediated selection from a DNA-encoded compound library. The original hit was a selective inhibitor of Pseudomonas aeruginosa LpxA with no activity against Escherichia coli LpxA. The biochemical potency of the series was optimized through an X-ray crystallography-supported medicinal chemistry program, resulting in compounds with nanomolar activity against P. aeruginosa LpxA (best half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) <5 nM) and cellular activity against P. aeruginosa (best minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 4 μg/mL). Lack of activity against E. coli was maintained (IC₅₀ > 20 μM and MIC > 128 μg/mL). The mode of action of analogues was confirmed through genetic analyses. As expected, compounds were active against multidrug-resistant isolates. Further optimization of pharmacokinetics is needed before efficacy studies in mouse infection models can be attempted. To our knowledge, this is the first reported LpxA inhibitor series with selective activity against P. aeruginosa.

Chemical Highlights Supporting the Role of Lipid A in Efficient Biological Adaptation of Gram-Negative Bacteria to External Stresses

The outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria provides an efficient barrier against external noxious compounds such as antimicrobial agents. Associated with drug target modification, it contributes to the overall failure of chemotherapy. In the complex OM architecture, Lipid A plays an essential role by anchoring the lipopolysaccharide in the membrane and ensuring the spatial organization between lipids, proteins, and sugars. Currently, the targets of almost all antibiotics are intracellularly located and require translocation across membranes. We report herein an integrated view of Lipid A synthesis, membrane assembly, a structure comparison at the molecular structure level of numerous Gram-negative bacterial species, as well as its recent use as a target for original antibacterial molecules. This review paves the way for a new vision of a key membrane component that acts during bacterial adaptation to environmental stresses and for the development of new weapons against microbial resistance to usual antibiotics.

Extraction and bioinformatics analysis of Chlamydia trachomatis LpxA

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study is to clone the LpxA gene of Chlamydia trachomatis and analyze its biological characteristics.

METHODS

Specific primers were designed according to the sequence of Ct LpxA gene. LpxA gene was amplified by PCR and connected to pMD18-T vectors. Positive clones were selected for PCR and DNA sequencing. Finally, bioinformatics software was used to analyze the biological properties of LpxA protein.

RESULTS

The total length of LpxA gene was 840 bp, encoding 280 amino acids. LpxA protein has no signal peptide and was located in bacterial cytoplasm. The prediction of secondary structure showed that the α-helix, extended strand, β-turn and random coil accounted for 19.6%, 32.8%, 11.4% and 36%, respectively. According to the prediction of tertiary structure, three identical LpxA molecules constituted homologous trimers. It was predicted that there were 11 B cell epitopes in LpxA.

CONCLUSION

Ct Lpxa gene was cloned, and LpxA protein structure and function were predicted.

The expression and purification of LpxA of Chlamydia trachomatis and preparation of its polyclonal antibody

The purpose of this study is to purify the LpxA protein of Chlamydia trachomatis (Ct) and prepare the polyclonal antibody against LpxA protein, so as to lay a foundation for studying the function of LpxA protein. The LpxA gene was amplified by PCR. The expression plasmid pET28a-LpxA was constructed by using pET28a as the vector. The fusion protein containing 6 histidine tag was induced by IPTG and purified by Ni2+ chromatography gel. The purified His-LpxA protein was used as an immunogen to immunize New Zealand rabbits subcutaneously through the back to prepare polyclonal antibody. Immunoblotting was used to detect the reaction between the antibody and His-LpxA. The determination of polyclonal antibody titer was detected by ELISA. The relative molecular weight of His-LpxA was 32.8 kDa, and it could be expressed in Escherichia coli. The purity of the purified protein was about 95%. After immunizing New Zealand rabbits, the antiserum was able to recognize the recombinant His-LpxA protein with a titer greater than 1:10240. In this study, LpxA protein was successfully purified and antiserum was prepared, which provided an experimental basis for studying the function of LpxA protein.

Structure-Based Virtual Screening of Pseudomonas aeruginosa LpxA Inhibitors Using Pharmacophore-Based Approach

Multidrug resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a noticeable and ongoing major obstacle for inhibitor design. In P. aeruginosa, uridine diphosphate N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) acetyltransferase (PaLpxA) is an essential enzyme of lipid A biosynthesis and an attractive drug target. PaLpxA is a homotrimer, and the binding pocket for its substrate, UDP-GlcNAc, is positioned between the monomer A-monomer B interface. The uracil moiety binds at one monomer A, the GlcNAc moiety binds at another monomer B, and a diphosphate form bonds with both monomers. The catalytic residues are conserved and display a similar catalytic mechanism across orthologs, but some distinctions exist between pocket sizes, residue differences, substrate positioning and specificity. The analysis of diversified pockets, volumes, and ligand positions was determined between orthologues that could aid in selective inhibitor development. Thenceforth, a complex-based pharmacophore model was generated and subjected to virtual screening to identify compounds with similar pharmacophoric properties. Docking and general Born-volume integral (GBVI) studies demonstrated 10 best lead compounds with selective inhibition properties with essential residues in the pocket. For biological access, these scaffolds complied with the Lipinski rule, no toxicity and drug likeness properties, and were considered as lead compounds. Hence, these scaffolds could be helpful for the development of potential selective PaLpxA inhibitors.

Discovery of dual-activity small-molecule ligands of Pseudomonas aeruginosa LpxA and LpxD using SPR and X-ray crystallography

The lipid A biosynthesis pathway is essential in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. LpxA and LpxD are the first and third enzymes in this pathway respectively, and are regarded as promising antibiotic targets. The unique structural similarities between these two enzymes make them suitable targets for dual-binding inhibitors, a characteristic that would decrease the likelihood of mutational resistance and increase cell-based activity. We report the discovery of multiple small molecule ligands that bind to P. aeruginosa LpxA and LpxD, including dual-binding ligands. Binding poses were determined for select compounds by X-ray crystallography. The new structures reveal a previously uncharacterized magnesium ion residing at the core of the LpxD trimer. In addition, ligand binding in the LpxD active site resulted in conformational changes in the distal C-terminal helix-bundle, which forms extensive contacts with acyl carrier protein (ACP) during catalysis. These ligand-dependent conformational changes suggest a potential allosteric influence of reaction intermediates on ACP binding, and vice versa. Taken together, the novel small molecule ligands and their crystal structures provide new chemical scaffolds for ligand discovery targeting lipid A biosynthesis, while revealing structural features of interest for future investigation of LpxD function.

Community-led comparative genomic and phenotypic analysis of the aquaculture pathogen Pseudomonas baetica a390T sequenced by Ion semiconductor and Nanopore technologies

Pseudomonas baetica strain a390T is the type strain of this recently described species and here we present its high-contiguity draft genome. To celebrate the 16th International Conference on Pseudomonas, the genome of P. baetica strain a390T was sequenced using a unique combination of Ion Torrent semiconductor and Oxford Nanopore methods as part of a collaborative community-led project. The use of high-quality Ion Torrent sequences with long Nanopore reads gave rapid, high-contiguity and -quality, 16-contig genome sequence. Whole genome phylogenetic analysis places P. baetica within the P. koreensis clade of the P. fluorescens group. Comparison of the main genomic features of P. baetica with a variety of other Pseudomonas spp. suggests that it is a highly adaptable organism, typical of the genus. This strain was originally isolated from the liver of a diseased wedge sole fish, and genotypic and phenotypic analyses show that it is tolerant to osmotic stress and to oxytetracycline.

Substrate specificity of the pyrophosphohydrolase LpxH determines the asymmetry of Bordetella pertussis lipid A

Lipopolysaccharides are anchored to the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria by a hydrophobic moiety known as lipid A, which potently activates the host innate immune response. Lipid A of Bordetella pertussis, the causative agent of whooping cough, displays unusual structural asymmetry with respect to the length of the acyl chains at the 3 and 3' positions, which are 3OH-C10 and 3OH-C14 chains, respectively. Both chains are attached by the acyltransferase LpxA, the first enzyme in the lipid A biosynthesis pathway, which, in B. pertussis, has limited chain length specificity. However, this only partially explains the strict asymmetry of lipid A. In attempts to modulate the endotoxicity of B. pertussis lipid A, here we expressed the gene encoding LpxA from Neisseria meningitidis, which specifically attaches 3OH-C12 chains, in B. pertussis This expression was lethal, suggesting that one of the downstream enzymes in the lipid A biosynthesis pathway in B. pertussis cannot handle precursors with a 3OH-C12 chain. We considered that the UDP-diacylglucosamine pyrophosphohydrolase LpxH could be responsible for this defect as well as for the asymmetry of B. pertussis lipid A. Expression of meningococcal LpxH in B. pertussis indeed resulted in new symmetric lipid A species with 3OH-C10 or 3OH-C14 chains at both the 3 and 3' positions, as revealed by MS analysis. Furthermore, co-expression of meningococcal lpxH and lpxA resulted in viable cells that incorporated 3OH-C12 chains in B. pertussis lipid A. We conclude that the asymmetry of B. pertussis lipid A is determined by the acyl chain length specificity of LpxH.

Structure, inhibition, and regulation of essential lipid A enzymes

The Raetz pathway of lipid A biosynthesis plays a vital role in the survival and fitness of Gram-negative bacteria. Research efforts in the past three decades have identified individual enzymes of the pathway and have provided a mechanistic understanding of the action and regulation of these enzymes at the molecular level. This article reviews the discovery, biochemical and structural characterization, and regulation of the essential lipid A enzymes, as well as continued efforts to develop novel antibiotics against Gram-negative pathogens by targeting lipid A biosynthesis. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Bacterial Lipids edited by Russell E. Bishop.

Crystal structure and activity of Francisella novicida UDP-N-acetylglucosamine acyltransferase

The first step of lipid A biosynthesis in Escherichia coli (E. coli) is catalyzed by LpxA (EcLpxA), an acyltransferase selective for UDP-N-acetylglucosamine (UDP-GlcNAc) and R-3-hydroxymyristoyl-acyl carrier protein (3-OH-C14-ACP), and is an essential step in majority of Gram-negative bacteria. Since the majority of lipid A species isolated from F. novicida contains 3-OH-C16 or 3-OH-C18 at its C3 and C3' positions, FnLpxA was thought to be selective for longer acyl chain (3-OH-C16 and 3-OH-C18) over short acyl chain (3-OH-C14, 3-OH-C12, and 3-OH-C10). Here we demonstrate that Francisella novicida (F. novicida) lpxA functionally complements an E. coli lpxA knockout mutant and efficiently transfers 3-OH-C14 as well as 3-OH-C16 in E. coli. Our results implicate that the acyl chain length of lipid A is determined by several factors including acyl chain selectivity of LpxA and downstream enzymes, as well as the composition of the acyl-ACP pool in vivo. We also report the crystal structure of F. novicida LpxA (FnLpxA) at 2.06 Å. The N-terminal parallel beta-helix (LβH) and C-terminal alpha-helical domain are similar to other reported structures of LpxAs. However, our structure indicates that the supposed ruler residues for hydrocarbon length, 171L in one monomer and 168H in the adjacent monomer in a functional trimer of FnLpxA, are located just 3.8 Å apart that renders not enough space for binding of 3-OH-C12 or longer acyl chains. This implicates that FnLpxA may have an alternative hydrophobic pocket, or the acyl chain may bend while binding to FnLpxA. In addition, the FnLpxA structure suggests a potential inhibitor binding site for development of antibiotics.

Drug discovery strategies to outer membrane targets in Gram-negative pathogens

This review will cover selected recent examples of drug discovery strategies which target the outer membrane (OM) of Gram-negative bacteria either by disruption of outer membrane function or by inhibition of essential gene products necessary for outer membrane assembly. Significant advances in pathway elucidation, structural biology and molecular inhibitor designs have created new opportunities for drug discovery within this target-class space.