1
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Müller JA, Schäffler N, Kellerer T, Schwake G, Ligon TS, Rädler JO. Kinetics of RNA-LNP delivery and protein expression. Eur J Pharm Biopharm 2024; 197:114222. [PMID: 38387850 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2024.114222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 01/23/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) employing ionizable lipids are the most advanced technology for delivery of RNA, most notably mRNA, to cells. LNPs represent well-defined core-shell particles with efficient nucleic acid encapsulation, low immunogenicity and enhanced efficacy. While much is known about the structure and activity of LNPs, less attention is given to the timing of LNP uptake, cytosolic transfer and protein expression. However, LNP kinetics is a key factor determining delivery efficiency. Hence quantitative insight into the multi-cascaded pathway of LNPs is of interest to elucidate the mechanism of delivery. Here, we review experiments as well as theoretical modeling of the timing of LNP uptake, mRNA-release and protein expression. We describe LNP delivery as a sequence of stochastic transfer processes and review a mathematical model of subsequent protein translation from mRNA. We compile probabilities and numbers obtained from time resolved microscopy. Specifically, live-cell imaging on single cell arrays (LISCA) allows for high-throughput acquisition of thousands of individual GFP reporter expression time courses. The traces yield the distribution of mRNA life-times, expression rates and expression onset. Correlation analysis reveals an inverse dependence of gene expression efficiency and transfection onset-times. Finally, we discuss why timing of mRNA release is critical in the context of codelivery of multiple nucleic acid species as in the case of mRNA co-expression or CRISPR/Cas gene editing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Judith A Müller
- Faculty of Physics and Center for NanoScience, Ludwig Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Nathalie Schäffler
- Faculty of Physics and Center for NanoScience, Ludwig Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Kellerer
- Multiphoton Imaging Lab, Munich University of Applied Sciences, Munich, Germany
| | - Gerlinde Schwake
- Faculty of Physics and Center for NanoScience, Ludwig Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Joachim O Rädler
- Faculty of Physics and Center for NanoScience, Ludwig Maximilians-University, Munich, Germany.
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2
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Greitens C, Leroux JC, Burger M. The intracellular visualization of exogenous DNA in fluorescence microscopy. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2024:10.1007/s13346-024-01563-4. [PMID: 38526634 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-024-01563-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/28/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
In the development of non-viral gene delivery vectors, it is essential to reliably localize and quantify transfected DNA inside the cell. To track DNA, fluorescence microscopy methods are commonly applied. These mostly rely on fluorescently labeled DNA, DNA binding proteins fused to a fluorescent protein, or fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). In addition, co-stainings are often used to determine the colocalization of the DNA in specific cellular compartments, such as the endolysosomes or the nucleus. We provide an overview of these DNA tracking methods, advice on how they should be combined, and indicate which co-stainings or additional methods are required to draw precise conclusions from a DNA tracking experiment. Some emphasis is given to the localization of exogenous DNA inside the nucleus, which is the last step of DNA delivery. We argue that suitable tools which allow for the nuclear detection of faint signals are still missing, hampering the rational development of more efficient non-viral transfection systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christina Greitens
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jean-Christophe Leroux
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Michael Burger
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences, ETH Zurich, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland.
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3
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Bassi T, Hirlinger A, Grayson L, Vantourout J, Toor N. Fluorescent labeling of RNA and DNA on the Hoogsteen edge using sulfinate chemistry. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 29:1437-1451. [PMID: 37277186 PMCID: PMC10573292 DOI: 10.1261/rna.079679.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
We have devised a single pot, low-cost method to add azide groups to unmodified nucleic acids without the need for enzymes or chemically modified nucleoside triphosphates. This involves reacting an azide-containing sulfinate salt with the nucleic acid, leading to replacement of C-H bonds on the nucleobase aromatic rings with C-R, where R is the azide-containing linker derived from the original sulfinate salt. With the addition of azide functional groups, the modified nucleic acid can easily be reacted with any alkyne-labeled compound of interest, including fluorescent dyes as shown in this work. This methodology enables the fluorescent labeling of a wide variety of nucleic acids, including natively folded RNAs, under mild conditions with minimal effects upon biochemical function and ribozyme catalysis. To demonstrate this, we show that a pair of labeled complementary ssDNA oligonucleotides (oligos) can hybridize to form dsDNA, even when labeled with multiple fluorophores per oligo. In addition, we also demonstrate that two different group II introns can splice when prelabeled internally with fluorophores, using our method. Broadly, this demonstrates that sulfinate modification of RNA is compatible with ribozyme function and Watson-Crick pairing, while preserving the labile backbone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiziano Bassi
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Anastassia Hirlinger
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Leah Grayson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
| | - Julien Vantourout
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, La Jolla, California 92037, USA
| | - Navtej Toor
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093, USA
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4
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Wang P, Zhang G, Xu Z, Chen Z, Liu X, Wang C, Zheng C, Wang J, Zhang H, Yan A. Whole-cell FRET monitoring of transcription factor activities enables functional annotation of signal transduction systems in living bacteria. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102258. [PMID: 35839853 PMCID: PMC9396075 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacteria adapt to their constantly changing environments largely by transcriptional regulation through the activities of various transcription factors (TFs). However, techniques that monitor TF–promoter interactions in situ in living bacteria are lacking. Herein, we developed a whole-cell TF–promoter binding assay based on the intermolecular FRET between an unnatural amino acid, l-(7-hydroxycoumarin-4-yl) ethylglycine, which labels TFs with bright fluorescence through genetic encoding (donor fluorophore) and the live cell nucleic acid stain SYTO 9 (acceptor fluorophore). We show that this new FRET pair monitors the intricate TF–promoter interactions elicited by various types of signal transduction systems, including one-component (CueR) and two-component systems (BasSR and PhoPQ), in bacteria with high specificity and sensitivity. We demonstrate that robust CouA incorporation and FRET occurrence is achieved in all these regulatory systems based on either the crystal structures of TFs or their simulated structures, if 3D structures of the TFs were unavailable. Furthermore, using CueR and PhoPQ systems as models, we demonstrate that the whole-cell FRET assay is applicable for the identification and validation of complex regulatory circuit and novel modulators of regulatory systems of interest. Finally, we show that the FRET system is applicable for single-cell analysis and monitoring TF activities in Escherichia coli colonizing a Caenorhabditis elegans host. In conclusion, we established a tractable and sensitive TF–promoter binding assay, which not only complements currently available approaches for DNA–protein interactions but also provides novel opportunities for functional annotation of bacterial signal transduction systems and studies of the bacteria–host interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pengchao Wang
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR, China; Department of Biology, School of Life Sciences, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Guangming Zhang
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Zeling Xu
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Zhe Chen
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Xiaohong Liu
- Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 15 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Chenyin Wang
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Chaogu Zheng
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jiangyun Wang
- Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 15 Datun Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100101, China.
| | - Hongmin Zhang
- Department of Biology, School of Life Sciences, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, Guangdong, China.
| | - Aixin Yan
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Pokfulam Road, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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5
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Delvaux NA, Mathew B, Rice KG. Fluorescent labeling of plasmid DNA for gene delivery: Implications of dye hydrophobicity on labeling efficiencies and nanoparticle size. Anal Biochem 2022; 644:113895. [PMID: 32783899 PMCID: PMC7870724 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2020.113895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Covalent fluorescent labels are important tools for monitoring the in vitro and in vivo localization of plasmid DNA nanoparticles, but must meet several criteria including high DNA labeling efficiencies and minimal impact on nanoparticle size. We developed a novel fluorescent labeling strategy utilizing an aryl azide photolabel conjugated to a short cationic peptide to label plasmid DNA with Cyanine 5 and sulfo-Cyanine 5. Using a simple camera flash apparatus, photolabel-peptide-dyes can be conjugated to DNA in minutes with preservation of DNA structure and minimal dye photobleaching. The addition of two anionic sulfonates to the Cyanine 5 core greatly improved labeling efficiencies from ~13 to ~53% and mitigated PEGylated polyacridine peptide-DNA nanoparticle size increases over a range of labeling densities. Comparison of our sulfo-Cyanine 5 peptide label to the Mirus Bio Label IT-Cy5 kit revealed that while both did not affect nanoparticle sizes appreciably, labeling efficiencies with our conjugate were higher, possibly due to the higher positive charge density on the peptide linker. The results from this work provide important considerations for choosing fluorophore tags to track DNA nanoparticles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan A Delvaux
- Division of Medicinal and Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, 52242, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Basil Mathew
- Division of Medicinal and Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, 52242, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Kevin G Rice
- Division of Medicinal and Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, 52242, Iowa City, IA, USA.
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6
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Zhou H, Li Y, Gan Y, Wang R. Total RNA Synthesis and its Covalent Labeling Innovation. Top Curr Chem (Cham) 2022; 380:16. [PMID: 35218412 DOI: 10.1007/s41061-022-00371-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
RNA plays critical roles in a wide range of physiological processes. For example, it is well known that RNA plays an important role in regulating gene expression, cell proliferation, and differentiation, and many other chemical and biological processes. However, the research community still suffers from limited approaches that can be applied to readily visualize a specific RNA-of-interest (ROI). Several methods can be used to track RNAs; these rely mainly on biological properties, namely, hybridization, aptamer, reporter protein, and protein binding. With respect to covalent approaches, very few cases have been reported. Happily, several new methods for efficient labeling studies of ROIs have been demonstrated successfully in recent years. Additionally, methods employed for the detection of ROIs by RNA modifying enzymes have also proved feasible. Several approaches, namely, phosphoramidite chemistry, in vitro transcription reactions, co-transcription reactions, chemical post-modification, RNA modifying enzymes, ligation, and other methods targeted at RNA labeling have been revealed in the past decades. To illustrate the most recent achievements, this review aims to summarize the most recent research in the field of synthesis of RNAs-of-interest bearing a variety of unnatural nucleosides, the subsequent RNA labeling research via biocompatible ligation, and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongling Zhou
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Yuanyuan Li
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Youfang Gan
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China
| | - Rui Wang
- School of Pharmacy, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China. .,Hubei Key Laboratory of Natural Medicinal Chemistry and Resource Evaluation, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China. .,Key Laboratory of Natural Product and Resource, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Shanghai, 230030, China.
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7
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Di Blasi R, Marbiah MM, Siciliano V, Polizzi K, Ceroni F. A call for caution in analysing mammalian co-transfection experiments and implications of resource competition in data misinterpretation. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2545. [PMID: 33953169 PMCID: PMC8099865 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22795-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2021] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Transient transfections are routinely used in basic and synthetic biology studies to unravel pathway regulation and to probe and characterise circuit designs. As each experiment has a component of intrinsic variability, reporter gene expression is usually normalized with co-delivered genes that act as transfection controls. Recent reports in mammalian cells highlight how resource competition for gene expression leads to biases in data interpretation, with a direct impact on co-transfection experiments. Here we define the connection between resource competition and transient transfection experiments and discuss possible alternatives. Our aim is to raise awareness within the community and stimulate discussion to include such considerations in future experimental designs, for the development of better transfection controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Di Blasi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK.,Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, South Kensington Campus, London, UK
| | - Masue M Marbiah
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK.,Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, South Kensington Campus, London, UK
| | - Velia Siciliano
- Synthetic and Systems Biology lab for Biomedicine, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia-IIT, Largo Barsanti e Matteucci, Naples (ITA), Italy
| | - Karen Polizzi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK.,Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, South Kensington Campus, London, UK
| | - Francesca Ceroni
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Imperial College London, South Kensington Campus, London, UK. .,Imperial College Centre for Synthetic Biology, South Kensington Campus, London, UK.
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8
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Wang J, Yu J, Wang T, Li C, Wei Y, Deng X, Chen X. Emerging intraoral biosensors. J Mater Chem B 2021; 8:3341-3356. [PMID: 31904075 DOI: 10.1039/c9tb02352f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Biomedical devices that involved continuous and real-time health-care monitoring have drawn much attention in modern medicine, of which skin electronics and implantable devices are widely investigated. Skin electronics are characterized for their non-invasive access to the physiological signals, and implantable devices are superior at the diagnosis and therapy integration. Despite the significant progress achieved, many gaps remain to be explored to provide a more comprehensive overview of human health. As the connecting point of the outer environment and human systems, the oral cavity contains many unique biomarkers that are absent in skin or inner organs, and hence, this could become a promising alternative locus for designing health-care monitoring devices. In this review, we outline the status of the oral cavity during the communication of the environment and human systems and compare the intraoral devices with skin electronics and implantable devices from the biophysical and biochemical aspects. We further summarize the established diagnosis database and technologies that could be adopted to design intraoral biosensors. Finally, the challenges and potential opportunities for intraoral biosensors are discussed. Intraoral biosensors could become an important complement for existing biomedical devices to constitute a more reliable health-care monitoring system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianwu Wang
- Innovative Centre for Flexible Devices (iFLEX), School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, 639798, Singapore.
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9
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Kumari M, Chaudhary S. Modulating the physicochemical and biological properties of carbon dots synthesised from plastic waste for effective sensing of E. coli. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2020; 196:111333. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2020.111333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2020] [Revised: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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10
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Zhang H, Rombouts K, Raes L, Xiong R, De Smedt SC, Braeckmans K, Remaut K. Fluorescence-Based Quantification of Messenger RNA and Plasmid DNA Decay Kinetics in Extracellular Biological Fluids and Cell Extracts. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 4:e2000057. [PMID: 32402121 DOI: 10.1002/adbi.202000057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Extracellular and intracellular degradation of nucleic acids remains an issue in non-viral gene therapy. Understanding biodegradation is critical for the rational design of gene therapeutics in order to maintain stability and functionality at the target site. However, there are only limited methods available that allow determining the stability of genetic materials in biological environments. In this context, the decay kinetics of fluorescently labeled plasmid DNA (pDNA) and messenger RNA (mRNA) in undiluted biological samples (i.e., human serum, human ascites, bovine vitreous) and cell extracts is studied using fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) and single particle tracking (SPT). It is demonstrated that FCS is suitable to follow mRNA degradation, while SPT is better suited to investigate pDNA integrity. The half-life of mRNA and pDNA is ≈1-2 min and 1-4 h in biological samples, respectively. The resistance against biodegradation drastically improves by complexation with lipid-based carriers. Taken together, FCS and SPT are able to quantify the integrity of mRNA and pDNA, respectively, as a function of time, both in the extracellular biological fluids and cell extracts. This in turn allows to focus on the important but less understood issue of nucleic acids degradation in more detail and to rationally optimize gene delivery system as therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heyang Zhang
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Koen Rombouts
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Laurens Raes
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Ranhua Xiong
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Stefaan C De Smedt
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Kevin Braeckmans
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Katrien Remaut
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
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11
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Wei YF, Wang Y, Wei XR, Sun R, Xu YJ, Ge JF. Adenine-based small molecule fluorescent probe for imaging mitochondrial nucleic acid. SPECTROCHIMICA ACTA. PART A, MOLECULAR AND BIOMOLECULAR SPECTROSCOPY 2020; 229:117865. [PMID: 31813730 DOI: 10.1016/j.saa.2019.117865] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 11/26/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
A small molecule fluorescent probe (probe 1) based on adenine-coumarin derivative was designed and synthesized in this paper. Probe 1 exhibited a significant fluorescence-enhancing response to nucleic acids at 495 nm (for DNA) and 487 nm (for RNA). The fluorescence enhancement of probe 1 for DNA and RNA was 5.68 and 9.73 times respectively, the fluorescence quantum yield was changed from 2.5% to 11.7% and 22.5% accordingly. Meanwhile, an excellent linear relationship of fluorescence intensity at 495 nm or 487 nm versus the nucleic acid concentration (1 μM for probe 1, 0-350 μg/mL for DNA and 0-300 μg/mL for RNA) was obtained. Co-staining and nucleic acid digestion experiments showed that probe 1 could selectively image nucleic acids in mitochondria and nucleoli in HeLa cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Fang Wei
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Material Science, Soochow University, 199 Ren'Ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Yue Wang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Material Science, Soochow University, 199 Ren'Ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Xue-Rui Wei
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Ru Sun
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Material Science, Soochow University, 199 Ren'Ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China.
| | - Yu-Jie Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School of Radiation Medicine and Protection and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Jian-Feng Ge
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Material Science, Soochow University, 199 Ren'Ai Road, Suzhou 215123, China; Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Medical Optics, Suzhou Institute of Biomedical Engineering and Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Suzhou 215163, China.
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12
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Lai WS, Arvola RM, Goldstrohm AC, Blackshear PJ. Inhibiting transcription in cultured metazoan cells with actinomycin D to monitor mRNA turnover. Methods 2019; 155:77-87. [PMID: 30625384 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymeth.2019.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Decay of transcribed mRNA is a key determinant of steady state mRNA levels in cells. Global analysis of mRNA decay in cultured cells has revealed amazing heterogeneity in rates of decay under normal growth conditions, with calculated half-lives ranging from several minutes to many days. The factors that are responsible for this wide range of decay rates are largely unknown, although our knowledge of trans-acting RNA binding proteins and non-coding RNAs that can control decay rates is increasing. Many methods have been used to try to determine mRNA decay rates under various experimental conditions in cultured cells, and transcription inhibitors like actinomycin D have probably the longest history of any technique for this purpose. Despite this long history of use, the actinomycin D method has been criticized as prone to artifacts, and as ineffective for some promoters. With appropriate guidelines and controls, however, it can be a versatile, effective technique for measuring endogenous mRNA decay in cultured mammalian and insect cells, as well as the decay of exogenously-expressed transcripts. It can be used readily on a genome-wide level, and is remarkably cost-effective. In this short review, we will discuss our utilization of this approach in these cells; we hope that these methods will allow more investigators to apply this useful technique to study mRNA decay under the appropriate conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wi S Lai
- The Signal Transduction Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States
| | - Rene M Arvola
- The Department of Biological Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, United States
| | - Aaron C Goldstrohm
- The Department of Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, and Biophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Perry J Blackshear
- The Signal Transduction Laboratory, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, United States; The Departments of Medicine and Biochemistry, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, United States.
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13
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Kretzmann JA, Feng R, Munshi AM, Ho D, Ranieri AM, Massi M, Saunders M, Norret M, Iyer KS, Evans CW. A facile methodology using quantum dot multiplex labels for tracking co-transfection. RSC Adv 2019; 9:20053-20057. [PMID: 35514698 PMCID: PMC9065570 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra03518d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The development of efficient non-viral transfection agents capable of delivering multiple nucleic acids is crucial for the field of genome engineering. Herein a facile methodology of polyplex labelling and tracking with quantum dots is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - RuiLu Feng
- University of Science and Technology of China
- Hefei Shi
- China
| | - Alaa M. Munshi
- School of Molecular Sciences
- The University of Western Australia
- Crawley
- Australia
| | - Diwei Ho
- School of Molecular Sciences
- The University of Western Australia
- Crawley
- Australia
| | - Anna M. Ranieri
- Department of Chemistry
- Nanochemistry Research Institute
- Curtin University of Technology
- Bentley
- Australia
| | - Massimiliano Massi
- Department of Chemistry
- Nanochemistry Research Institute
- Curtin University of Technology
- Bentley
- Australia
| | - Martin Saunders
- Centre for Microscopy
- Characterisation and Analysis
- The University of Western Australia
- Crawley
- Australia
| | - Marck Norret
- School of Molecular Sciences
- The University of Western Australia
- Crawley
- Australia
| | - K. Swaminathan Iyer
- School of Molecular Sciences
- The University of Western Australia
- Crawley
- Australia
| | - Cameron W. Evans
- School of Molecular Sciences
- The University of Western Australia
- Crawley
- Australia
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14
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Zhang E, Liu L, Lv F, Wang S. Design and Synthesis of Reactive Perylene Tetracarboxylic Diimide Derivatives for Rapid Cell Imaging. ACS OMEGA 2018; 3:8691-8696. [PMID: 31459000 PMCID: PMC6644429 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.8b01275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Accepted: 07/24/2018] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
A new water-soluble reactive perylene tetracarboxylic diimide derivative (PDI-pfp) is designed and synthesized that can realize fast imaging of the endoplasmic reticulum in living cells. The PDI-pfp comprises three functional moieties: perylene tetracarboxylic diimide as fluorescent backbone, poly(ethylene glycol) for providing good water disperse ability, and pentafluorophenol active ester as the reactive group under physiological condition. On the basis of covalent reaction between the active ester group of PDI-pfp and amine groups on cytomembrane, PDI-pfp can rapidly interact with cytomembrane, followed by uptake by living MCF-7 cells within 1 min and also exhibit low cell cytotoxicity. Furthermore, it is proved that PDI-pfp acts as a universal imaging agent for other types of cells. This fluorescent probe is of great potential for the application in the rapid imaging of organelles in cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Endong Zhang
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Organic
Solids, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- College
of Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Libing Liu
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Organic
Solids, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- College
of Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Fengting Lv
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Organic
Solids, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- College
of Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Shu Wang
- Beijing
National Laboratory for Molecular Sciences, Key Laboratory of Organic
Solids, Institute of Chemistry, Chinese
Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100190, P. R. China
- College
of Chemistry, University of Chinese Academy
of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
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15
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Knob R, Hanson RL, Tateoka OB, Wood RL, Guerrero-Arguero I, Robison RA, Pitt WG, Woolley AT. Sequence-specific sepsis-related DNA capture and fluorescent labeling in monoliths prepared by single-step photopolymerization in microfluidic devices. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1562:12-18. [PMID: 29859687 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2018.05.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Fast determination of antibiotic resistance is crucial in selecting appropriate treatment for sepsis patients, but current methods based on culture are time consuming. We are developing a microfluidic platform with a monolithic column modified with oligonucleotides designed for sequence-specific capture of target DNA related to the Klebsiella pneumoniae carbapenemase (KPC) gene. We developed a novel single-step monolith fabrication method with an acrydite-modified capture oligonucleotide in the polymerization mixture, enabling fast monolith preparation in a microfluidic channel using UV photopolymerization. These prepared columns had a threefold higher capacity compared to monoliths prepared in a multistep process involving Schiff-base DNA attachment. Conditions for denaturing, capture and fluorescence labeling using hybridization probes were optimized with synthetic 90-mer oligonucleotides. These procedures were applied for extraction of a PCR amplicon from the KPC antibiotic resistance gene in bacterial lysate obtained from a blood sample spiked with E. coli. The results showed similar eluted peak areas for KPC amplicon extracted from either hybridization buffer or bacterial lysate. Selective extraction of the KPC DNA was verified by real time PCR on eluted fractions. These results show great promise for application in an integrated microfluidic diagnostic system that combines upstream blood sample preparation and downstream single-molecule counting detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Radim Knob
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, United States
| | - Robert L Hanson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, United States
| | - Olivia B Tateoka
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, United States
| | - Ryan L Wood
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, United States
| | - Israel Guerrero-Arguero
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, United States
| | - Richard A Robison
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, United States
| | - William G Pitt
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, United States
| | - Adam T Woolley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Brigham Young University, Provo, UT 84602, United States.
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16
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Petrovics R, Söveges B, Egyed A, Knorr G, Kormos A, Imre T, Török G, Zeke A, Kocsmár É, Lotz G, Kele P, Németh K. A rapid and concise setup for the fast screening of FRET pairs using bioorthogonalized fluorescent dyes. Org Biomol Chem 2018; 16:2997-3005. [PMID: 29629719 DOI: 10.1039/c8ob00213d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
One of the most popular means to follow interactions between bio(macro)molecules is Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET). There is large interest in widening the selection of fluorescent FRET pairs especially in the region of the red/far red range, where minimal autofluorescence is encountered. A set of bioorthogonally applicable fluorescent dyes, synthesized recently in our lab, were paired (Cy3T/Cy5T; Cy1A/Cy3T and Cy1A/CBRD1A) based on their spectral characteristics in order to test their potential in FRET applications. For fast elaboration of the selected pairs we have created a bioorthogonalized platform based on complementary 17-mer DNA oligomers. The cyclooctynylated strands were modified nearly quantitatively with the fluorophores via bioorthogonal chemistry steps, using azide- (Cy1; CBRD1) or tetrazine-modified (Cy3; Cy5) dyes. Reactions were followed by capillary electrophoresis using a method specifically developed for this project. FRET efficiencies of the fluorescent dye pairs were compared both in close proximity (5' and 3' matched) and at larger distance (5' and 5' matched). The specificity of FRET signals was further elaborated by denaturation and competition studies. Cy1A/Cy3T and Cy1A/CBRD1A introduced here as novel FRET pairs are highly recommended for FRET applications based on the significant changes in fluorescence intensities of the donor and acceptor peaks. Application of one of the FRET pairs was demonstrated in live cells, transfected with labeled oligos. Furthermore, the concise installation of the dyes allows for efficient fluorescence modification of any selected DNA strands as was demonstrated in the construction of Cy3T labeled oligomers, which were used in the FISH-based detection of Helicobacter pylori.
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Affiliation(s)
- Réka Petrovics
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Organic Chemistry, "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary.
| | - Bianka Söveges
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Organic Chemistry, "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary.
| | - Alexandra Egyed
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Organic Chemistry, "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary.
| | - Gergely Knorr
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Organic Chemistry, "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary.
| | - Attila Kormos
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Organic Chemistry, "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary.
| | - Tímea Imre
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Instrumentation Center, MS Metabolomics Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary
| | - György Török
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Enzymology, Molecular Cell Biology Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary
| | - András Zeke
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Enzymology, Protein Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary
| | - Éva Kocsmár
- 2nd Department of Pathology, Semmelweis University, Budapest H-1091 Üllői str. 93, Hungary
| | - Gábor Lotz
- 2nd Department of Pathology, Semmelweis University, Budapest H-1091 Üllői str. 93, Hungary
| | - Péter Kele
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Organic Chemistry, "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary.
| | - Krisztina Németh
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences of Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Organic Chemistry, "Lendület" Chemical Biology Research Group, H-1117 Budapest, Magyar tudósok krt. 2, Hungary.
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17
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Zagato E, Vermeulen L, Dewitte H, Van Imschoot G, Vandenbroucke RE, Demeester J, De Smedt SC, Neyts K, Remaut K, Braeckmans K. Quantifying the Average Number of Nucleic Acid Therapeutics per Nanocarrier by Single Particle Tracking Microscopy. Mol Pharm 2018; 15:1142-1149. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.7b00999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elisa Zagato
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Lotte Vermeulen
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Heleen Dewitte
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Griet Van Imschoot
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Roosmarijn E. Vandenbroucke
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jo Demeester
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stefaan C. De Smedt
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kristiaan Neyts
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Katrien Remaut
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Kevin Braeckmans
- Laboratory of General Biochemistry and Physical Pharmacy, Ghent University Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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18
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Wang J, Lv F, Liu L, Ma Y, Wang S. Strategies to design conjugated polymer based materials for biological sensing and imaging. Coord Chem Rev 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ccr.2017.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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19
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Warminski M, Sikorski PJ, Warminska Z, Lukaszewicz M, Kropiwnicka A, Zuberek J, Darzynkiewicz E, Kowalska J, Jemielity J. Amino-Functionalized 5' Cap Analogs as Tools for Site-Specific Sequence-Independent Labeling of mRNA. Bioconjug Chem 2017; 28:1978-1992. [PMID: 28613834 DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.7b00291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
mRNA is a template for protein biosynthesis, and consequently mRNA transport, translation, and turnover are key elements in the overall regulation of gene expression. Along with growing interest in the mechanisms regulating mRNA decay and localization, there is an increasing need for tools enabling convenient fluorescent labeling or affinity tagging of mRNA. We report new mRNA 5' cap analog-based tools that enable site-specific labeling of RNA within the cap using N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) chemistry. We explored two complementary methods: a co-transcriptional labeling method, in which the label is first attached to a cap analog and then incorporated into RNA by in vitro transcription, and a post-transcriptional labeling method, in which an amino-functionalized cap analog is incorporated into RNA followed by chemical labeling of the resulting transcript. After testing the biochemical properties of RNAs carrying the novel modified cap structures, we demonstrated the utility of fluorescently labeled RNAs in decapping assays, RNA decay assays, and RNA visualization in cells. Finally, we also demonstrated that mRNAs labeled by the reported method are translationally active. We envisage that the novel analogs will provide an alternative to radiolabeling of mRNA caps for in vitro studies and open possibilities for new applications related to the study of mRNA fates in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Warminski
- Division of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw , 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Pawel J Sikorski
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw , 02-097, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Zofia Warminska
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw , 02-097, Warsaw, Poland.,College of Interfaculty Individual Studies of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Warsaw , 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Maciej Lukaszewicz
- Division of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw , 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Kropiwnicka
- Division of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw , 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Zuberek
- Division of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw , 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Edward Darzynkiewicz
- Division of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw , 02-093, Warsaw, Poland.,Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw , 02-097, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Kowalska
- Division of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw , 02-093, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Jacek Jemielity
- Centre of New Technologies, University of Warsaw , 02-097, Warsaw, Poland
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20
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Deen J, Vranken C, Leen V, Neely RK, Janssen KPF, Hofkens J. Methyltransferase-Directed Labeling of Biomolecules and its Applications. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017; 56:5182-5200. [PMID: 27943567 PMCID: PMC5502580 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201608625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Methyltransferases (MTases) form a large family of enzymes that methylate a diverse set of targets, ranging from the three major biopolymers to small molecules. Most of these MTases use the cofactor S-adenosyl-l-Methionine (AdoMet) as a methyl source. In recent years, there have been significant efforts toward the development of AdoMet analogues with the aim of transferring moieties other than simple methyl groups. Two major classes of AdoMet analogues currently exist: doubly-activated molecules and aziridine based molecules, each of which employs a different approach to achieve transalkylation rather than transmethylation. In this review, we discuss the various strategies for labelling and functionalizing biomolecules using AdoMet-dependent MTases and AdoMet analogues. We cover the synthetic routes to AdoMet analogues, their stability in biological environments and their application in transalkylation reactions. Finally, some perspectives are presented for the potential use of AdoMet analogues in biology research, (epi)genetics and nanotechnology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jochem Deen
- Laboratory of Nanoscale BiologySchool of Engineering, EPFL, STI IBI-STI LBEN BM 5134 (Bâtiment BM)Station 17CH-1015LausanneSwitzerland
| | - Charlotte Vranken
- Laboratory of Photochemistry and Spectroscopy, Department of ChemistryKU LeuvenCelestijnenlaan 200FB-3001HeverleeBelgium
| | - Volker Leen
- Laboratory of Photochemistry and Spectroscopy, Department of ChemistryKU LeuvenCelestijnenlaan 200FB-3001HeverleeBelgium
| | - Robert K. Neely
- School of ChemistryUniversity of BirminghamEdgbastonBirminghamB15 2TTUK
| | - Kris P. F. Janssen
- Laboratory of Photochemistry and Spectroscopy, Department of ChemistryKU LeuvenCelestijnenlaan 200FB-3001HeverleeBelgium
| | - Johan Hofkens
- Laboratory of Photochemistry and Spectroscopy, Department of ChemistryKU LeuvenCelestijnenlaan 200FB-3001HeverleeBelgium
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21
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Deen J, Vranken C, Leen V, Neely RK, Janssen KPF, Hofkens J. Die Methyltransferase-gesteuerte Markierung von Biomolekülen und ihre Anwendungen. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201608625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jochem Deen
- Laboratory of Nanoscale Biology; School of Engineering, EPFL, STI IBI-STI LBEN BM 5134 (Bâtiment BM); Station 17 CH-1015 Lausanne Schweiz
| | - Charlotte Vranken
- Laboratory of Photochemistry and Spectroscopy, Department of Chemistry; KU Leuven; Celestijnenlaan 200F B-3001 Heverlee Belgien
| | - Volker Leen
- Laboratory of Photochemistry and Spectroscopy, Department of Chemistry; KU Leuven; Celestijnenlaan 200F B-3001 Heverlee Belgien
| | - Robert K. Neely
- School of Chemistry; University of Birmingham; Edgbaston Birmingham B15 2TT Großbritannien
| | - Kris P. F. Janssen
- Laboratory of Photochemistry and Spectroscopy, Department of Chemistry; KU Leuven; Celestijnenlaan 200F B-3001 Heverlee Belgien
| | - Johan Hofkens
- Laboratory of Photochemistry and Spectroscopy, Department of Chemistry; KU Leuven; Celestijnenlaan 200F B-3001 Heverlee Belgien
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