Active Targeted Nanoparticles for Oral Administration of Gastric Cancer Therapy

Unveiling the potential role of micro/nano biomaterials in the treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection

INTRODUCTION

Helicobacter pylori causes stubborn infections and leads to a variety of stomach disorders, such as peptic ulcer, chronic atrophic gastritis, and gastric cancer. Although antibiotic-based approaches have been widely used against H. pylori, some challenges such as antibiotic resistance are increasing in severity. Therefore, simpler but more effective strategies are needed.

AREAS COVERED

In this review, basic information on functionalized and non-functionalized micro/nano biomaterials and routes of administration for H. pylori inhibition are provided in an easy-to-understand format. Afterward, in vitro and in vivo studies of some promising bio-platforms including metal-based biomaterials, biopolymers, small-molecule saccharides, and vaccines for H. pylori inhibition are discussed in a holistic manner.

EXPERT OPINION

Functionalized or non-functionalized micro/nano biomaterials loaded with anti-H. pylori agents can show efficient bactericidal activity with no/slight negative influence on the host gastrointestinal microbiota. However, this claim needs to be substantiated with hard data such as assessment of the biopharmaceutical parameters of anti-H. pylori systems and the measurement of diversity/abundance of bacterial genera in the host gastric/gut microbiota before and after H. pylori eradication.

Advances in targeted therapy for human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 positive in advanced gastric cancer

Emerging therapeutic methods represented by targeted therapy are effective supplements to traditional first-line chemoradiotherapy resistance. Human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) is one of the most important targets in targeted therapy for gastric cancer. Trastuzumab combined with chemotherapy has been used as the first-line treatment for advanced gastric cancer. The safety and efficacy of pertuzumab and margetuximab in the treatment of gastric cancer have been verified. However, monoclonal antibodies, due to their large molecular weight, inability to penetrate the blood-brain barrier, and drug resistance, lead to decreased therapeutic efficacy, so it is necessary to explore the efficacy of other HER2-targeting therapies in gastric cancer. Small-molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors, such as lapatinib and pyrrotinib, have the advantages of small molecular weight, penetrating the blood-brain barrier and high oral bioavailability, and are expected to become the drugs of choice for perioperative treatment and neoadjuvant therapy of gastric cancer after validation by large-scale clinical trials in the future. Antibo-drug conjugate, such as T-DM1 and T-DXd, can overcome the resistance of monoclonal antibodies despite their different mechanisms of tumor killing, and are a supplement for the treatment of patients who have failed the treatment of monoclonal antibodies such as trastuzumab. Therefore, after more detailed stratification of gastric cancer patients, various gastric cancer drugs targeting HER2 are expected to play a more significant role.

Nanoparticles for Augmenting Therapeutic Potential and Alleviating the Effect of Di(2-ethylhexyl) Phthalate on Gastric Cancer

Changes in diet culture and modern lifestyle contributed to a higher incidence of gastrointestinal-related diseases, including gastritis, implicated in the pathogenesis of gastric cancer. This observation raised concerns regarding exposure to di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), which is linked to adverse health effects, including reproductive and developmental problems, inflammatory response, and invasive adenocarcinoma. Research on the direct link between DEHP and gastric cancer is ongoing, and further studies are required to establish a conclusive association. In our study, extremely low concentrations of DEHP exerted significant effects on cell migration by promoting the epithelial-mesenchymal transition in gastric cancer cells. This effect was mediated by the modulation of the PI3K/AKT/mTOR and Smad2 signaling pathways. To address the DEHP challenges, our initial design of TPGS-conjugated fucoidan, delivered via pH-responsive nanoparticles, successfully demonstrated binding to the P-selectin protein. This achievement has not only enhanced the antigastric tumor efficacy but has also led to a significant reduction in the expression of malignant proteins associated with the condition. These findings underscore the promising clinical therapeutic potential of our approach.

Nanoparticle-enhanced postbiotics: Revolutionizing cancer therapy through effective delivery

AIM

Gastric cancer contributes to cancer-related fatalities. Conventional chemotherapy faces challenges due to severe adverse effects, prompting recent research to focus on postbiotics, which are safer biomolecules derived from nonviable probiotics. Despite promising in vitro results, efficient in vivo delivery systems remain a challenge. This study aimed to design a potential nanoparticle (NP) formulation encapsulating the Lacticaseibacillus paracasei GMNL-133 (SGMNL-133) isolate to enhance its therapeutic efficacy in treating gastric cancer.

MAIN METHODS

We successfully isolated GMNL-133 (SGMNL-133) by optimizing the lysate extraction and column elution processes for L. paracasei GMNL-133, resulting in substantial enhancement of its capacity to inhibit the proliferation of gastric cancer cells. Additionally, we developed a potential NP utilizing arginine-chitosan and fucoidan encapsulating SGMNL-133.

KEY FINDINGS

This innovative approach protected the SGMNL-133 from degradation by gastric acid, facilitated its penetration through the mucus layer, and enabled interaction with gastric cancer cells. Furthermore, in vivo experiments demonstrated that the encapsulation of SGMNL-133 in NPs significantly enhanced its efficacy in the treatment of orthotopic gastric tumors while simultaneously reducing tissue inflammation levels.

SIGNIFICANCE

Recent research highlights postbiotics as a safe alternative, but in vivo delivery remains a challenge. Our study optimized the extraction of the lysate and column elution of GMNL-133, yielding SGMNL-133. We also developed NPs to protect SGMNL-133 from gastric acid, enhance mucus penetration, and improve the interaction with gastric cancer cells. This combination significantly enhanced drug delivery and anti-gastric tumor activity.

Future Nanotechnology-Based Strategies for Improved Management of Helicobacter pylori Infection

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a recalcitrant pathogen, which can cause gastric disorders. During the past decades, polypharmacy-based regimens, such as triple and quadruple therapies have been widely used against H. pylori. However, polyantibiotic therapies can disturb the host gastric/gut microbiota and lead to antibiotic resistance. Thus, simpler but more effective approaches should be developed. Here, some recent advances in nanostructured drug delivery systems to treat H. pylori infection are summarized. Also, for the first time, a drug release paradigm is proposed to prevent H. pylori antibiotic resistance along with an IVIVC model in order to connect the drug release profile with a reduction in bacterial colony counts. Then, local delivery systems including mucoadhesive, mucopenetrating, and cytoadhesive nanobiomaterials are discussed in the battle against H. pylori infection. Afterward, engineered delivery platforms including polymer-coated nanoemulsions and polymer-coated nanoliposomes are poposed. These bioinspired platforms can contain an antimicrobial agent enclosed within smart multifunctional nanoformulations. These bioplatforms can prevent the development of antibiotic resistance, as well as specifically killing H. pylori with no or only slight negative effects on the host gastrointestinal microbiota. Finally, the essential checkpoints that should be passed to confirm the potential effectiveness of anti-H. pylori nanosystems are discussed.

Oral nanomedicine biointeractions in the gastrointestinal tract in health and disease

Oral administration is the preferred route of administration based on the convenience for and compliance of the patient. Oral nanomedicines have been developed to overcome the limitations of free drugs and overcome gastrointestinal (GI) barriers, which are heterogeneous across healthy and diseased populations. This review aims to provide a comprehensive overview and comparison of the oral nanomedicine biointeractions in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in health and disease (GI and extra-GI diseases) and highlight emerging strategies that exploit these differences for oral nanomedicine-based treatment. We introduce the key GI barriers related to oral delivery and summarize their pathological changes in various diseases. We discuss nanomedicine biointeractions in the GIT in health by describing the general biointeractions based on the type of oral nanomedicine and advanced biointeractions facilitated by advanced strategies applied in this field. We then discuss nanomedicine biointeractions in different diseases and explore how pathological characteristics have been harnessed to advance the development of oral nanomedicine.

Hydrogel systems for targeted cancer therapy

When hydrogel materials with excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability are used as excellent new drug carriers in the treatment of cancer, they confer the following three advantages. First, hydrogel materials can be used as a precise and controlled drug release systems, which can continuously and sequentially release chemotherapeutic drugs, radionuclides, immunosuppressants, hyperthermia agents, phototherapy agents and other substances and are widely used in the treatment of cancer through radiotherapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, hyperthermia, photodynamic therapy and photothermal therapy. Second, hydrogel materials have multiple sizes and multiple delivery routes, which can be targeted to different locations and types of cancer. This greatly improves the targeting of drugs, thereby reducing the dose of drugs and improving treatment effectiveness. Finally, hydrogel can intelligently respond to environmental changes according to internal and external environmental stimuli so that anti-cancer active substances can be remotely controlled and released on demand. Combining the abovementioned advantages, hydrogel materials have transformed into a hit in the field of cancer treatment, bringing hope to further increase the survival rate and quality of life of patients with cancer.

Mucoadhesive carriers for oral drug delivery

Among the various dosage forms, oral medicine has extensive benefits including ease of administration and patients' compliance, over injectable, suppositories, ocular and nasal. Despite of extensive demand and emerging advantages, over 50% of therapeutic molecules are not available in oral form due to their physicochemical properties. More importantly, most of the biologics, proteins, peptide, and large molecular drugs are mostly available in injectable form. Conventional oral drug delivery system has limitation such as degradation and lack of stability within stomach due to presence of highly acidic gastric fluid, hinders their therapeutic efficacy and demand more frequent and higher dosing. Hence, formulation for controlled, sustained, and targeted drug delivery, need to be designed with feasibility to target the specific region of gastrointestinal (GI) tract such as stomach, small intestine, intestine lymphatic, and colon is challenging. Among various oral delivery approaches, mucoadhesive vehicles are promising and has potential for improving oral drug retention and controlled absorption to treat local diseases within the GI tract, as well systemic diseases. This review provides the overview about the challenges and opportunities to design mucoadhesive formulation for oral delivery of therapeutics in a way to target the specific region of the GI tract. Finally, we have concluded with future perspective and potential of mucoadhesive formulations for oral local and systemic delivery.

Synthesis of 8-Fluoroneocryptolepine and Evaluation for Cytotoxic Activity against AGS Cancer Cells

Neocryptolepine derivatives have attracted great interest because of their unique cytotoxic activity. 8-Fluoroneocryptolepine (8FNC) was synthesized, and its cytotoxicity was evaluated by MTT assay in AGS gastric cancer cells and gastric mucosa GES-1 cells. 8-Fluoroneocryptolepine showed greater selectivity and cytotoxicity to AGS cells than the cisplatin (CIS) and fluorouracil (5-Fu) commonly used in clinical treatment of gastric cancer. Most importantly, we significantly improved the cytotoxic effect of 8FNC against AGS cells by structural modification and reduced the cytotoxicity against GES-1 cells compared with neocryptolepine. We further evaluated the activity of 8FNC against AGS cells in vitro. Our results indicate that 8FNC arrests the AGS cell cycle in the G2/M phase, reduces the mitochondrial membrane potential of AGS cells, and drives the initiation of apoptotic body formation in 8FNC-induced apoptosis. Moreover, 8FNC exhibits strong inhibitory effects on AGS cell migration. Studies on the molecular mechanisms of the cytotoxic activities of 8FNC revealed that it may play a significant role in the inhibitory effect on AGS human gastric cancer cells through the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. In conclusion, 8FNC may become a promising lead compound in the development of potential clinical drug candidates for the treatment of gastric cancer.

Improvement of curcumin loading into a nanoporous functionalized poor hydrolytic stable metal-organic framework for high anticancer activity against human gastric cancer AGS cells

Two low water-stable nanoporous Zn-based Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) with and without the NO₂-functional group were synthesized by the reflux method and used to encapsulate curcumin (CCM). The characterization and application of these Zn-based MOFs (DMOF-1 and DMOF-1-NO₂) have been studied by FT-IR, PXRD,¹H NMR, N₂ adsorption, SEM, UV-vis, and fluorescence microscopy methods. The amount of drug loading of DMOF-1 and DMOF-1-NO₂ is 22.4 and 28.3 wt%, respectively. The drug loading results were also investigated by the computational simulation method. These kinds of MOFs have poor stability against water. This instability was used as a key to solving the problem of the low solubility of CCM as a model of hydrophobic cancer drug in a water-based medium. The obtained results confirmed that these poor hydrolytic MOFs could improve the solubility of CCM and enhance cytotoxicity against cancer cells (AGS) in comparison with free CCM. These results can prepare a new opportunity to increase the anticancer activity of hydrophobic drugs.

Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of novel o-aminobenzamide derivatives as potential anti-gastric cancer agents in vitro and in vivo

Although gastric cancer has become a major public health problem, oral agents applied in clinics for gastric cancer therapy are scarce. Therefore, to explore new oral chemical entities with high efficiency and low toxicity, 41 o-aminobenzamide derivatives based on the scaffolds of MS-275 and SAHA were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for their anti-gastric cancer abilities in vitro and in vivo. Structure-activity relationships were discussed, leading to the identification of compounds F8 (IC₅₀ = 0.28 μM against HGC-27 cell) and T9 (IC₅₀ = 1.84 μM against HGC-27 cell) with improved cytotoxicity, anti-gastric cancer proliferation potency, induction of cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest ability, inhibition of cell migration and invasion. What is worth mentioning is that compound F8 was more efficient and less toxic than the positive drug capecitabine in vivo on the HGC-27-xenograft model. Meanwhile, compound F8 exhibited suitable pharmacokinetic properties and less acute toxicity (LD₅₀ > 1000 mg/kg). Besides, western blotting analysis, IHC analysis, differentially expressed proteins analysis and ABPP experiment indicated that compound F8 could modulate molecular pathways involved in apoptosis and cell cycle progression. Consequently, compound F8 is a strong candidate for the development of human gastric cancer therapy.

Modern Nanocarriers as a Factor in Increasing the Bioavailability and Pharmacological Activity of Flavonoids

This review is devoted to modern systems of nanocarriers that ensure the targeted delivery of flavonoids to various organs and systems. Flavonoids have wide range of effects on the human body due to their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antimicrobial, antiplatelet and other types of activity. However, the low bioavailability of flavonoids significantly limits their practical application. To overcome this disadvantage, serious efforts have been made in recent years to develop nanoscale carriers for flavonoids. This is particularly important in view of the known antitumor effect of these compounds, which allows them to target tumor cells without affecting surrounding healthy tissues. Nanocarriers provide increased penetration of biologicals into specific organs in combination with controlled and prolonged release, which markedly improves their effectiveness. This review summarizes data on the use of phytosomes, lipid-based nanoparticles, as well as polymeric and inorganic nanoparticles; their advantages and drawbacks are analyzed; the prospect of their use is discussed that opens new possibilities for the clinical application of flavonoids.

Review of Recent Advances and Their Improvement in the Effectiveness of Hydrogel-Based Targeted Drug Delivery: A Hope for Treating Cancer

Using hydrogels for delivering cancer therapeutics is advantageous in pharmaceutical usage as they have an edge over traditional delivery, which is tainted due to the risk of toxicity that it imbues. Hydrogel usage leads to the development of a more controlled drug release system owing to its amenability for structural metamorphosis, its higher porosity to seat the drug molecules, and its ability to shield the drug from denaturation. The thing that makes its utility even more enhanced is that they make themselves more recognizable to the body tissues and hence can stay inside the body for a longer time, enhancing the efficiency of the delivery, which otherwise is negatively affected since the drug is identified by the human immunity as a foreign substance, and thus, an attack of the immunity begins on the drug injected. A variety of hydrogels such as thermosensitive, pH-sensitive, and magnetism-responsive hydrogels have been included and their potential usage in drug delivery has been discussed in this review that aims to present recent studies on hydrogels that respond to alterations under a variety of circumstances in "reducing" situations that mimic the microenvironment of cancerous cells.

Engineering Therapeutic Strategies in Cancer Immunotherapy via Exogenous Delivery of Toll-like Receptor Agonists

As a currently spotlighted method for cancer treatment, cancer immunotherapy has made a lot of progress in recent years. Among tremendous cancer immunotherapy boosters available nowadays, Toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists were specifically selected, because of their effective activation of innate and adaptive immune cells, such as dendritic cells (DCs), T cells, and macrophages. TLR agonists can activate signaling pathways of DCs to express CD80 and CD86 molecules, and secrete various cytokines and chemokines. The maturation of DCs stimulates naïve T cells to differentiate into functional cells, and induces B cell activation. Although TLR agonists have anti-tumor ability by activating the immune system of the host, their drawbacks, which include poor efficiency and remarkably short retention time in the body, must be overcome. In this review, we classify and summarize the recently reported delivery strategies using (1) exogenous TLR agonists to maintain the biological and physiological signaling activities of cargo agonists, (2) usage of multiple TLR agonists for synergistic immune responses, and (3) co-delivery using the combination with other immunomodulators or stimulants. In contrast to naked TLR agonists, these exogenous TLR delivery strategies successfully facilitated immune responses and subsequently mediated anti-tumor efficacy.

Advances in Nanodelivery of Green Tea Catechins to Enhance the Anticancer Activity

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death globally. A variety of phenolic compounds display preventative and therapeutic effects against cancers. Green teas are rich in phenolics. Catechins are the most dominant phenolic component in green teas. Studies have shown that catechins have anticancer activity in various cancer models. The anticancer activity of catechins, however, may be compromised due to their low oral bioavailability. Nanodelivery emerges as a promising way to improve the oral bioavailability and anticancer activity of catechins. Research in this area has been actively conducted in recent decades. This review provides the molecular mechanisms of the anticancer effects of catechins, the factors that limit the oral bioavailability of catechins, and the latest advances of delivering catechins using nanodelivery systems through different routes to enhance their anticancer activity.

Research Progress in Flavonoids as Potential Anticancer Drug Including Synergy with Other Approaches

BACKGROUND

In chemotherapy for cancer, conventional drugs aim to target the rapidly growing and dividing cells at the early stages. However, at an advanced stage, cancer cells become less susceptible because of the multidrug resistance and the recruitment of alternative salvage pathways for their survival. Besides, owing to target non-selectivity, healthy proliferating cells also become vulnerable to the damage. The combination therapies offered using flavonoids to cure cancer not only exert an additive effect against cancer cells by targetting supplementary cell carnage pathways but also hampers the drug resistance mechanisms. Thus, the review aims to discuss the potential and pharmacokinetic limitations of flavonoids in cancer treatment. Further successful synergistic studies reported using flavonoids to treat cancer has been described along with potential drug delivery systems.

METHODS

A literature search was done by exploring various online databases like Pubmed, Scopus, and Google Scholar with the specific keywords like "Anticancer drugs", "flavonoids", "oncology research", and "pharmacokinetics".

RESULTS

Dietary phytochemicals, mainly flavonoids, hinder cell signalling responsible for multidrug resistance and cancer progression, primarily targeting cancer cells sparing normal cells. Such properties establish flavonoids as a potential candidate for synergistic therapy. However, due to low absorption and high metabolism rates, the bioavailability of flavonoids becomes a challenge. Such challenges may be overcome using novel approaches like derivatization, and single or co-delivery nano-complexes of flavonoids with conventional drugs. These new approaches may improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic of flavonoids.

CONCLUSION

This review highlights the application of flavonoids as a potential anticancer phytochemical class in combination with known anti-cancer drugs/nanoparticles. It also discusses flavonoid's pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics issues and ways to overcome such issues. Moreover, it covers successful methodologies employed to establish flavonoids as a safe and effective phytochemical class for cancer treatment.

Molecular targeted treatment and drug delivery system for gastric cancer

Gastric cancer is still a major cancer worldwide. The early diagnosis rate of gastric cancer in most high incidence countries is low. At present, the overall treatment effect of gastric cancer is poor, and the median overall survival remains low. Most of the patients with gastric cancer are in an advanced stage when diagnosed, and drug treatment has become the main means. Thus, new targeted drugs and therapeutic strategies are the hope of improving the therapeutic effect of gastric cancer. In this review, we summarize the new methods and advances of targeted therapy for gastric cancer, including novel molecular targeted therapeutic agents and drug delivery systems, with a major focus on the development of drug delivery systems (drug carriers and targeting peptides). Elaborating these new methods and advances will contribute to the management of gastric cancer.

Combinational dual drug delivery system to enhance the care and treatment of gastric cancer patients

Gastric cancer is a frequently occurring cancer with high mortality each year worldwide. Finding new and effective therapeutic strategy against human gastric cancer is still urgently required. Hence, we have established a new method to achieve treatment-actuated modifications in a tumor microenvironment by utilizing synergistic activity between two potential anticancer drugs. Dual drug delivery of gemcitabine (GEM) and Camptothecin-11 (CPT-11) exhibits a great anti-cancer potential, as GEM enhances the effect of CPT-11 treatment of human gastric cells by providing microenvironment stability. However, encapsulation of GEM and CPT-11 obsessed by poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA)-based nanoparticles (NPs) is incompetent owing to unsuitability between the binary free GEM and CPT-11 moieties and the polymeric system. Now, we display that CPT-11 can be prepared by hydrophobic covering of the drug centers with dioleoylphosphatidic acid (DOPA). The DOPA-covered CPT-11 can be co-encapsulated in PLGA NPs alongside GEM to stimulate excellent anticancer property. The occurrence of the CPT-11 suggestively enhanced the encapsulations of GEM into PLGA NPs (GEM-CPT-11 NPs). Formation of the nanocomposite (GEM-CPT-11 NPs) was confirmed by FTIR and X-ray spectroscopic techniques. Further, the morphology of GEM NPs, CPT-11 NPs, and GEM-CPT-11 NPs and NP size was examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), respectively. Furthermore, GEM-CPT-11 NPs induced significant apoptosis in human gastric NCI-N87 and SGC-791 cancer cells in vitro. The morphological observation and apoptosis were confirmed by the various biochemical assays (AO-EB, nuclear staining, and annexin V-FITC). In addition, evaluation of the hemolysis assay with erythrocytes of human shows excellent biocompatibility of free GEM, free CPT-11, GEM NPs, CPT-11 NPs, and GEM-CPT-11 NPs. The results suggest that GEM-CPT-11 NPs are one of the promising nursing cares for human gastric cancer therapeutic candidates worthy of further investigations.

Catechins within the Biopolymer Matrix-Design Concepts and Bioactivity Prospects

Epidemiological studies and clinical investigations proposed that catechins extracts alone may not provide a sufficient level of bioactivities and promising therapeutic effects to achieve health benefits due to a number of constraints related to poor oral absorption, limited bioavailability, sensitivity to oxidation, etc. Modern scientific studies have reported numerous techniques for the design of micro- and nano-bio-delivery systems as novel and promising strategies to overcome these obstacles and to enhance catechins' therapeutic activity. The objective assessment of their benefits, however, requires a critical comparative estimation of the advantages and disadvantages of the designed catechins-biocarrier systems, their biological activities and safety administration aspects. In this respect, the present review objectively outlines, compares and assesses the recent advances related to newly developed design concepts of catechins' encapsulation into various biopolymer carriers and their release behaviour, with a special emphasis on the specific physiological biofunctionalities of the innovative bioflavonoid/biopolymer delivery systems.

Nanoformulations to Enhance the Bioavailability and Physiological Functions of Polyphenols

Polyphenols are micronutrients that are widely present in human daily diets. Numerous studies have demonstrated their potential as antioxidants and anti-inflammatory agents, and for cancer prevention, heart protection and the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. However, due to their vulnerability to environmental conditions and low bioavailability, their application in the food and medical fields is greatly limited. Nanoformulations, as excellent drug delivery systems, can overcome these limitations and maximize the pharmacological effects of polyphenols. In this review, we summarize the biological activities of polyphenols, together with systems for their delivery, including phospholipid complexes, lipid-based nanoparticles, protein-based nanoparticles, niosomes, polymers, micelles, emulsions and metal nanoparticles. The application of polyphenol nanoparticles in food and medicine is also discussed. Although loading into nanoparticles solves the main limitation to application of polyphenolic compounds, there are some concerns about their toxicological safety after entry into the human body. It is therefore necessary to conduct toxicity studies and residue analysis on the carrier.

Flavonoid Nanoparticles: A Promising Approach for Cancer Therapy

Flavonoids, a ubiquitous group of naturally occurring polyphenolic compounds, have recently gained importance as anticancer agents. Unfortunately, due to low solubility, absorption, and rapid metabolism of dietary flavonoids, their anticancer potential is not sufficient. Nanocarriers can improve the bioavailability of flavonoids. In this review we aimed to evaluate studies on the anticancer activity of flavonoid nanoparticles. A review of English language articles published until 30 June 2020 was conducted, using PubMed (including MEDLINE), CINAHL Plus, Cochrane, and Web of Science data. Most studies determining the anticancer properties of flavonoid nanoparticles are preclinical. The potential anticancer activity focuses mainly on MCF-7 breast cancer cells, A549 lung cancer cells, HepG2 liver cancer cells, and melanoma cells. The flavonoid nanoparticles can also support the anti-tumour effect of drugs used in cancer therapy by enhancing the anti-tumour effect or reducing the systemic toxicity of drugs.

Chitosan: A compound for drug delivery system in gastric cancer-a review

Gastric cancer is known as the fourth most common cancer and the second main cause of cancer-related deaths. Gastric cancer has some characteristics including high incidence rates of metastasis and mortality as well as low rates of early diagnosis, radical resection and 5-year survival. Radical surgery and following chemotherapy has been done for patients with early gastric cancer leading to 90 % survival rate in 5-year after operation. Besides, in advanced stage some cases don't have the chance of surgery as well as the risk of metastasis is high in these patients overally leading to poor prognosis. In recent years, finding a suitable drug delivery system for chemotherapeutic drugs in gastric cancer is an considerable subject for researchers. Chitosan is known as an appropriate compound for chemo-drug delivery in cancer treatment due to its high biodegradability and biocompatibility. Moreover, trans-mucosal drug delivery is facilitated by chitosan via its mucoadhesive and cationic features enhancing interaction with mucous membrane. In addition, a large amount of experimental evidence has reported the efficacy of chitosan for drug delivery in gastric cancer. Thus, the aim of this article was to review this evidence as well as new chitosan-based drug delivery systems investigated in gastric cancer.

Chitosan-based Colloidal Polyelectrolyte Complexes for Drug Delivery: A Review

Polyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) as safe drug delivery carriers, are spontaneously formed by mixing the oppositely charged polyelectrolyte solutions in water without using organic solvents nor chemical cross-linker or surfactant. Intensifying attentions on the PECs study are aroused in academia and industry since the fabrication process of PECs is mild and they are ideal vectors for the delivery of susceptible drugs and macromolecules. Chitosan as the unique natural cationic polysaccharide, is a good bioadhesive material. Besides, due to its excellent biocompatibility, biodegradability, abundant availability and hydrophilic nature, chitosan-based PECs have been extensively applied for drug delivery, particularly after administration through mucosal and parenteral routes. The purpose of this review is to compile the recent advances on the biomedical applications of chitosan-based PECs, with specific focuses on the mucosal delivery, cancer therapy, gene delivery and anti-HIV therapy. The challenges and the perspectives of the chitosan-based PECs are briefly commented as well.

Hydrogel-Based Controlled Drug Delivery for Cancer Treatment: A Review

As an emerging drug carrier, hydrogels have been widely used for tumor drug delivery. A hydrogel drug carrier can cause less severe side effects than systemic chemotherapy and can achieve sustained delivery of a drug at tumor sites. In addition, hydrogels have excellent biocompatibility and biodegradability and lower toxicity than nanoparticle carriers. Smart hydrogels can respond to stimuli in the environment (e.g., heat, pH, light, and ultrasound), enabling in situ gelation and controlled drug release, which greatly enhance the convenience and efficiency of drug delivery. Here, we summarize the different sizes of hydrogels used for cancer treatment and their related delivery routes, discuss the design strategies for stimuli-responsive hydrogels, and review the research concerning smart hydrogels reported in the past few years.

Conjugation Of EGCG And Chitosan NPs As A Novel Nano-Drug Delivery System

PURPOSE

Chitosan nanoparticles (CS NPs) have been used as a good vehicle for nano-drug delivery due to their good physicochemical properties. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), one of the major active ingredients of green tea, is a natural antioxidant that helps in reducing and preventing cell damage and fighting cancer, plus providing other benefits. The aim of this study is to optimise the preparation parameters in terms of the physical characteristics and stability in CS/EGCG NPs conjugation.

RESULTS

The conjugation of CS/EGCGNPs was obtained by means of Poloxamer 188. The average CS/EGCG NPs complex was of size 117.8±38.71nm with a surface charge of +67.8±4.38mV and isoelectric point at pH 7.61.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, NPs produced were stable at 4°C with nanometric size, good polydispersity, good loading and efficiency, envisaging to be a possible candidate for nano-therapeutic delivery system against hepatic fibrosis.

Dietary flavonoids: Nano delivery and nanoparticles for cancer therapy

Application of nanotechnologies to cancer therapy might increase solubility and/or bioavailability of bioactive compounds of natural or synthetic origin and offers other potential benefits in cancer therapy, including selective targeting. In the present review we aim to evaluate in vivo studies on the anticancer activity of nanoparticles (NPs) obtained from food-derived flavonoids. From a systematic search a total of 60 studies were identified. Most of the studies involved the flavanol epigallocatechin-3-O-gallate and the flavonol quercetin, in both delivery and co-delivery (with anti-cancer drugs) systems. Moreover, some studies investigated the effects of other flavonoids, such as anthocyanins aglycones anthocyanidins, flavanones, flavones and isoflavonoids. NPs inhibited tumor growth in both xenograft and chemical-induced animal models of cancerogenesis. Encapsulation improved bioavailability and/or reduced toxicity of both flavonoids and/or co-delivered drugs, such as doxorubicin, docetaxel, paclitaxel, honokiol and vincristine. Moreover, flavonoids have been successfully applied in molecular targeted nanosystems. Selectivity for cancer cells involves pH- and/or reactive oxygen species-mediated mechanisms. Furthermore, flavonoids are good candidates as drug delivery for anticancer drugs in green synthesis systems. In conclusion, although human studies are needed, NPs obtained from food-derived flavonoids have promising anticancer effects in vivo.

Enhanced anti-colon cancer efficacy of 5-fluorouracil by epigallocatechin-3- gallate co-loaded in wheat germ agglutinin-conjugated nanoparticles

Colon adenocarcinoma is the third most common cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide owing to its aggressive nature. Here, we developed a novel oral drug delivery system (DDS) that comprised active targeted nanoparticles made from gelatin and chitosan (non-toxic polymers). The nanoparticles were fabricated using a complex coacervation method, which was accompanied by conjugation of wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) onto their surface by glutaraldehyde cross-linking. Specifically, we integrated 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), the first-line treatment agent against colon cancer, and (-)-epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), which inhibits tumor growth via anti-angiogenesis and apoptosis-inducing effects, into the nanoparticles, named WGA-EF-NP. The 5-FU and EGCG co-loaded nanoparticles showed sustained drug release, enhanced cellular uptake, and longer circulation time. WGA-EF-NP exhibited superior anti-tumor activity and pro-apoptotic efficacy compared to the drugs and nanoparticles without WGA decoration owing to better bioavailability and longer circulation time in vivo. Thus, WGA-EF-NP shows promise as a DDS for enhanced efficacy against colon cancer.

Co-Delivery of Natural Compounds with a Dual-Targeted Nanoparticle Delivery System for Improving Synergistic Therapy in an Orthotopic Tumor Model

Various natural compounds including epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and curcumin (CU) have potential in developing anticancer therapy. However, their clinical use is commonly limited by instability and low tissue distribution. EGCG and CU combined treatment can improve the efficacy with synergistic effects. To improve the synergistic effect and overcome the limitations of low tissue distribution, we applied a dual cancer-targeted nanoparticle system to co-deliver EGCG and CU. Nanoparticles were composed of hyaluronic acid, fucoidan, and poly(ethylene glycol)-gelatin to encapsulate EGCG and CU. Furthermore, a dual targeting system was established with hyaluronic acid and fucoidan, which were used as agents for targeting CD44 on prostate cancer cells and P-selectin in tumor vasculature, respectively. Their effect and efficacy were investigated in prostate cancer cells and a orthotopic prostate tumor model. The EGCG/CU-loaded nanoparticles bound to prostate cancer cells, which were uptaken more into cells, leading to a better anticancer efficiency compared to the EGCG/CU combination solution. In addition, the releases of EGCG and CU were regulated by their pH value that avoided the premature release. In mice, treatment of the cancer-targeted EGCG/CU-loaded nanoparticles significantly attenuated the orthotopic tumor growth without inducing organ injuries. Overall, the dual-targeted nanoparticle system for the co-delivery of EGCG and CU greatly improved its synergistic effect in cancer therapy, indicating its great potential in developing treatments for prostate cancer therapy.

Anti-Cancerous Potential of Polyphenol-Loaded Polymeric Nanotherapeutics

Recent evidence has extensively demonstrated the anticancer potential of nutraceuticals, including plant polyphenols. Polymeric nanocarrier systems have played an important role in improving the physicochemical and pharmacological properties of polyphenols, thus ameliorating their therapeutic effectiveness. This article summarizes the benefits and shortcomings of various polymeric systems developed for the delivery of polyphenols in cancer therapy and reveals some ideas for future work.

Chitosan-Based Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery

This review discusses different forms of nanomaterials generated from chitosan and its derivatives for controlled drug delivery. Nanomaterials are drug carriers with multiple features, including target delivery triggered by environmental, pH, thermal responses, enhanced biocompatibility, and the ability to cross the blood-brain barrier. Chitosan (CS), a natural polysaccharide largely obtained from marine crustaceans, is a promising drug delivery vector for therapeutics and diagnostics, owing to its biocompatibility, biodegradability, low toxicity, and structural variability. This review describes various approaches to obtain novel CS derivatives, including their distinct advantages, as well as different forms of nanomaterials recently developed from CS. The advanced applications of CS-based nanomaterials are presented here in terms of their specific functions. Recent studies have proven that nanotechnology combined with CS and its derivatives could potentially circumvent obstacles in the transport of drugs thereby improving the drug efficacy. CS-based nanomaterials have been shown to be highly effective in targeted drug therapy.

Salmonella-Mediated Cytolethal Distending Toxin Transfer Inhibits Tumor Growth

The Salmonella enterica serovar Choleraesuis (S.C.) has potential as an antitumor agent because of its tumor-targeting characteristics. S.C. can also be used for specific delivery of therapeutic agents and continuous release during replication. Previously, we successfully used S.C. as a vector to transfer a therapeutic gene and oncolytic virus, which suggested that modified S.C. is suitable for incorporating other antitumor agents into a single system. Cytolethal distending toxin B (CdtB) produced by Campylobacter jejuni can induce tumor cell apoptosis. Here we coated CdtB with poly(allylamine hydrochloride) (PAH) to yield PAH-CdtB. Treatment of cells with PAH-coated CdtB induced apoptosis, demonstrating that the compound retained antitumor activity. Furthermore, S.C. coated with PAH-CdtB (CdtB-S.C.) maintained tumor-targeting activity and had an enhanced antitumor effect. Measurement of the cytotoxic effect of CdtB-S.C. in vitro in a tumor cell line showed increased apoptosis whereas treatment of tumor-bearing mice with CdtB-S.C. reduced tumor growth and prolonged survival. Taken together, our results provide evidence that Salmonella carrying CdtB could have application for the treatment of tumors.

Size-controlled, colloidally stable and functional nanoparticles based on the molecular assembly of green tea polyphenols and keratins for cancer therapy

Molecular assembly of green tea polyphenols and keratins into size-controlled, colloidally stable and functional nanoparticles for enhanced cancer therapy was achieved.

Development of genipin-crosslinked fucoidan/chitosan-N-arginine nanogels for preventing Helicobacter infection

AIM

This study aims to validate the anti-Helicobacter pylori efficacy of amoxicillin-loaded nanoparticles and nanogels with pH-responsive and site-specific drug release properties against H. pylori infection.

MATERIALS & METHODS

Genipin-crosslinked low molecular weight fucoidan/chitosan-N-arginine nanogels (FCSA) were prepared for targeted delivery of amoxicillin to the site of H. pylori infected AGS gastric epithelial cells.

RESULTS

The negatively charged nanogels (n-FCSA) adhered to H. pylori and exhibited pH-responsive drug release property to reduce cytotoxic effects in H. pylori infected AGS cells.

CONCLUSION

These in vitro findings suggest that n-FCSA nanogels are potential carriers for H. pylori specific delivery of antibacterial agents, and provide the basis for further studies on the clinical use of the nanogels.

Polyphenols delivery by polymeric materials: challenges in cancer treatment

Nanotechnology can offer different solutions for enhancing the therapeutic efficiency of polyphenols, a class of natural products widely explored for a potential applicability for the treatment of different diseases including cancer. While possessing interesting anticancer properties, polyphenols suffer from low stability and unfavorable pharmacokinetics, and thus suitable carriers are required when planning a therapeutic protocol. In the present review, an overview of the different strategies based on polymeric materials is presented, with the aim to highlight the strengths and the weaknesses of each approach and offer a platform of ideas for researchers working in the field.

Cancer therapeutics with epigallocatechin-3-gallate encapsulated in biopolymeric nanoparticles

With the recent quantum leap in chemoprevention by dietary products, their use as cancer therapeutics is garnering worldwide attention. The concept of effortlessly fighting this deadly disease by gulping cups of green tea or swallowing green tea extract capsules is appreciated universally. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), a major polyphenol in green tea, has generated significant interest in controlling carcinogenesis due to its growth-inhibitory efficacy against a variety of cancers by targeting multiple signaling pathways. However, the success of EGCG in preclinical studies is difficult to translate into clinical trials due to issues of low solubility, bioavailability and an uncertain therapeutic window. The laborious and expensive journey of drugs from the laboratory to commercialization can be improved by utilizing nanoparticles as anti-cancer drug carriers. Exploitation of biopolymeric nanoparticles in recent years has improved EGCG's biodistribution, stability and tumor selectivity, revealing its superior chemopreventive effects. This review briefly summarizes recent developments regarding the targets and side effects of EGCG, complications associated with its low bioavailability and critically analyses the application of biopolymeric nanoparticles encapsulating EGCG as a next generation delivery systems.

Food macromolecule based nanodelivery systems for enhancing the bioavailability of polyphenols

Diet polyphenols—primarily categorized into flavonoids (e.g., flavonols, flavones, flavan-3-ols, anthocyanidins, flavanones, and isoflavones) and nonflavonoids (with major subclasses of stilbenes and phenolic acids)—are reported to have health-promoting effects, such as antioxidant, antiinflammatory, anticarcinoma, antimicrobial, antiviral, and cardioprotective properties. However, their applications in functional foods or medicine are limited because of their inefficient systemic delivery and poor oral bioavailability. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate, curcumin, and resveratrol are the well-known representatives of the bioactive diet polyphenols but with poor bioavailability. Food macromolecule based nanoparticles have been fabricated using reassembled proteins, crosslinked polysaccharides, protein–polysaccharide conjugates (complexes), as well as emulsified lipid via safe procedures that could be applied in food. The human gastrointestinal digestion tract is the first place where the food grade macromolecule nanoparticles exert their effects on improving the bioavailability of diet polyphenols, via enhancing their solubility, preventing their degradation in the intestinal environment, elevating the permeation in small intestine, and even increasing their contents in the bloodstream. We contend that the stability and structure behaviors of nanocarriers in the gastrointestinal tract environment and the effects of nanoencapsulation on the metabolism of polyphenols warrant more focused attention in further studies.

Nanoparticle Targeting CD44-Positive Cancer Cells for Site-Specific Drug Delivery in Prostate Cancer Therapy

Prostate cancer is one of the leading causes of cancer death in adult men and is a multistage disease with therapeutic challenges of local recurrent advanced tumors and distant metastatic disease. CD44 is a multifunctional and multistructural cell surface glycoprotein that is involved in cell-cell interactions, cell proliferation, and cell migration. In the study, we produced negatively charged and biocompatible hyaluronic acid-based nanoparticles as a therapeutic system for targeting CD44-positive cancer cells. Subsequently, we confirmed the delivery of bioactive epigallocatechin-3-gallate and site-specific inhibition of prostate tumor growth. In this study, hyaluronic acid-based nanoparticles successfully encapsulated epigallocatechin-3-gallate and were efficiently internalized into cancer cells via CD44 ligand receptor recognition, induced cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase, and inhibited prostate cancer cell growth. Furthermore, in vivo assays indicated that these nanoparticles specifically bind CD44 receptors and increase apoptosis of cancer cells, leading to significant decreases in prostate tumor activity and tumor tissue inflammation.