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Wang S, Du L, Yuan S, Peng GH. Complement C3a receptor inactivation attenuates retinal degeneration induced by oxidative damage. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:951491. [PMID: 36110094 PMCID: PMC9469738 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.951491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinal degeneration causes vision loss and threatens the health of elderly individuals worldwide. Evidence indicates that the activation of the complement system is associated with retinal degeneration. However, the mechanism of complement signaling in retinal degeneration needs to be further studied. In this study, we show that the expression of C3 and C3a receptor (C3ar1) is positively associated with the inflammatory response and retinal degeneration. Genetic deletion of C3 and pharmacological inhibition of C3ar1 resulted in the alleviation of neuroinflammation, prevention of photoreceptor cell apoptosis and restoration of visual function. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) identified a C3ar1-dependent network shown to regulate microglial activation and astrocyte gliosis formation. Mechanistically, we found that STAT3 functioned downstream of the C3-C3ar1 pathway and that the C3ar1-STAT3 pathway functionally mediated the immune response and photoreceptor cell degeneration in response to oxidative stress. These findings reveal an important role of C3ar1 in oxidative-induced retinal degeneration and suggest that intervention of the C3ar1 pathway may alleviate retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojun Wang
- Senior Department of Ophthalmology, Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Lu Du
- Senior Department of Ophthalmology, Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Shunzong Yuan
- Department of Lymphoma, Head and Neck Cancer, The Fifth Medical Center, Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA) General Hospital (Former 307th Hospital of the PLA), Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Shunzong Yuan,
| | - Guang-Hua Peng
- Laboratory of Visual Cell Differentiation and Regulation, Basic Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Department of Pathophysiology, Basic Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, China
- Guang-Hua Peng,
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2
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Du L, Peng GH. Complement C3 deficiency alleviates alkylation-induced retinal degeneration in mice. EYE AND VISION (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2022; 9:22. [PMID: 35676725 PMCID: PMC9178834 DOI: 10.1186/s40662-022-00292-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND It has been found that the extensive use of anticancer drugs containing DNA-alkylating agents not only target cancer cells but also cause retinal inflammation through toxic intermediates. Complement C3 (C3) is a core component of the complement activation pathway, and dysregulation of the complement pathway is involved in several retinal degenerative diseases. However, whether C3 plays a critical role in alkylation-induced retinal degeneration is unclear. METHODS Following treatment with the alkylating agent methyl methane sulfonate (MMS), the C3 mRNA and protein level was measured, DNA damage and photoreceptor cell death were assessed in both wild-type (WT) C57BL/6J and C3 knockout (KO) mice. RESULTS We determined that complement pathway is activated following MMS treatment, and C3 knockout (KO) increased the rate of photoreceptor cell survival and preserved visual function. The mRNA levels of nuclear erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and related genes were higher after MMS application in C3 KO mice. CONCLUSION In summary, our study found that C3 KO promotes photoreceptor cell survival and activates the Nrf2 signaling pathway in the context of alkylation-induced retinal degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Du
- Department of Ophthalmology, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039 China
| | - Guang-Hua Peng
- Laboratory of Visual Cell Differentiation and Regulation, Basic Medical College, Zhengzhou University, 100 Science Ave, Zhengzhou, 450001 Henan China
- Department of Ophthalmology, Chinese PLA General Hospital, Beijing, 100039 China
- Department of Pathophysiology, Basic Medical College, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450001 Henan China
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Armento A, Ueffing M, Clark SJ. The complement system in age-related macular degeneration. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:4487-4505. [PMID: 33751148 PMCID: PMC8195907 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-03796-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a chronic and progressive degenerative disease of the retina, which culminates in blindness and affects mainly the elderly population. AMD pathogenesis and pathophysiology are incredibly complex due to the structural and cellular complexity of the retina, and the variety of risk factors and molecular mechanisms that contribute to disease onset and progression. AMD is driven by a combination of genetic predisposition, natural ageing changes and lifestyle factors, such as smoking or nutritional intake. The mechanism by which these risk factors interact and converge towards AMD are not fully understood and therefore drug discovery is challenging, where no therapeutic attempt has been fully effective thus far. Genetic and molecular studies have identified the complement system as an important player in AMD. Indeed, many of the genetic risk variants cluster in genes of the alternative pathway of the complement system and complement activation products are elevated in AMD patients. Nevertheless, attempts in treating AMD via complement regulators have not yet been successful, suggesting a level of complexity that could not be predicted only from a genetic point of view. In this review, we will explore the role of complement system in AMD development and in the main molecular and cellular features of AMD, including complement activation itself, inflammation, ECM stability, energy metabolism and oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Armento
- Department for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Marius Ueffing
- Department for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Department for Ophthalmology, University Eye Clinic, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Simon J Clark
- Department for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Department for Ophthalmology, University Eye Clinic, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.
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Cheng YS, Linetsky M, Li H, Ayyash N, Gardella A, Salomon RG. 4-Hydroxy-7-oxo-5-heptenoic acid lactone can induce mitochondrial dysfunction in retinal pigmented epithelial cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2020; 160:719-733. [PMID: 32920040 PMCID: PMC7704664 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Revised: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 09/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Oxidation of docosahexaenoate (DHA)-containing phospholipids in the cell plasma membrane leads to release of the α,β-unsaturated aldehyde 4-hydroxy-7-oxo-5-heptenoic acid (HOHA) lactone which is capable of inducing retinal pigmented epithelial (RPE) cell dysfunction. Previously, HOHA lactone was shown to induce apoptosis and angiogenesis, and to activate the alternative complement pathway. RPE cells metabolize HOHA lactone through enzymatic conjugation with glutathione (GSH). Competing with this process is the adduction of HOHA lactone to protein lysyl residues generating 2-(ω-carboxyethyl)pyrrole (CEP) derivatives that have pathological relevance to age-related macular degeneration (AMD). We now find that HOHA lactone induces mitochondrial dysfunction. It decreases ATP levels, mitochondrial membrane potentials, enzymatic activities of mitochondrial complexes, depletes GSH and induces oxidative stress in RPE cells. The present study confirmed that pyridoxamine and other primary amines, which have been shown to scavenge γ-ketoaldehydes formed by carbohydrate or lipid peroxidation, are ineffective for scavenging the α,β-unsaturated aldehydes. Histidyl hydrazide (HH), that has both hydrazide and imidazole nucleophile functionalities, is an effective scavenger of HOHA lactone and it protects ARPE-19 cells against HOHA lactone-induced cytotoxicity. The HH α-amino group is not essential for this electrophile trapping activity. The Nα-acyl L-histidyl hydrazide derivatives with 2- to 7-carbon acyl groups with increasing lipophilicities are capable of maintaining the effectiveness of HH in protecting ARPE-19 cells against HOHA lactone toxicity, which potentially has therapeutic utility for treatment of age related eye diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Shiuan Cheng
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Mikhail Linetsky
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Haoting Li
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Naji Ayyash
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Anthony Gardella
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Robert G Salomon
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA.
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Linetsky M, Guo J, Udeigwe E, Ma D, Chamberlain AS, Yu AO, Solovyova K, Edgar E, Salomon RG. 4-Hydroxy-7-oxo-5-heptenoic acid (HOHA) lactone induces apoptosis in retinal pigment epithelial cells. Free Radic Biol Med 2020; 152:280-294. [PMID: 32222470 PMCID: PMC7276294 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2020.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2019] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cell dysfunction and death play vital roles in age-related macular degeneration (AMD) pathogenesis. Previously we showed that oxidative cleavage of docosahexenoate (DHA) phospholipids generates an α,β-unsaturated aldehyde, 4-hydroxy-7-oxohept-4-enoic acid (HOHA) lactone, that forms ω-carboxyethylpyrrole (CEP) derivatives through adduction to proteins and ethanolamine phospholipids. CEP derivatives and autoantibodies accumulate in the retinas and blood plasma of individuals with AMD and are a biomarker of AMD. They promote the choroidal neovascularization of "wet AMD". Immunization of mice with CEP-modified mouse serum albumin induces "dry AMD"-like lesions in their retinas as well as interferon-gamma and interleukin-17 production by CEP-specific T cells that promote inflammatory M1 polarization of macrophages. The present study confirms that oxidative stress or inflammatory stimulus produces CEP in both the primary human ARPE-19 cell line and hRPE cells. Exposure of these cells to HOHA lactone fosters production of reactive oxygen species. Thus, HOHA lactone participates in a vicious cycle, promoting intracellular oxidative stress leading to oxidative cleavage of DHA to produce more HOHA lactone. We now show that HOHA lactone is cytotoxic, inducing apoptotic cell death through activation of the intrinsic pathway. This suggests that therapeutic interventions targeting HOHA lactone-induced apoptosis may prevent the loss of RPE cells during the early phase of AMD. We also discovered that ARPE-19 cells are more susceptible than hRPE cells to HOHA lactone cytotoxicity. This is consistent with the view that, compared to normal RPE cells, ARPE-19 cells exhibit a diseased RPE phenotype that also includes elevated expression of the mesenchymal indicator vimentin, elevated integrin a5 promotor strength and deficient secretion of the anti-VEGF molecule pigment-epithelium-derived factor fostering weaker tight junctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail Linetsky
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, USA
| | - Junhong Guo
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Emeka Udeigwe
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Duoming Ma
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Amanda S Chamberlain
- Department of Biochemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Annabelle O Yu
- Department of Biology, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Kseniya Solovyova
- Department of Chemistry, Cleveland State University, Cleveland, OH, 44115, USA
| | - Elise Edgar
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA
| | - Robert G Salomon
- Department of Chemistry, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, 44106, USA; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, USA.
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Potential Protective and Therapeutic Roles of the Nrf2 Pathway in Ocular Diseases: An Update. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:9410952. [PMID: 32273949 PMCID: PMC7125500 DOI: 10.1155/2020/9410952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Accepted: 02/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear factor- (erythroid-derived 2-) like 2 (Nrf2) is a regulator of many processes of life, and it plays an important role in antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antifibrotic responses and in cancer. This review is focused on the potential mechanism of Nrf2 in the occurrence and development of ocular diseases. Also, several Nrf2 inducers, including noncoding RNAs and exogenous compounds, which control the expression of Nrf2 through different pathways, are discussed in ocular disease models and ocular cells, protecting them from dysfunctional changes. Therefore, Nrf2 might be a potential target of protecting ocular cells from various stresses and preventing ocular diseases.
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Ge Y, Zhang A, Sun R, Xu J, Yin T, He H, Gou J, Kong J, Zhang Y, Tang X. Penetratin-modified lutein nanoemulsion in-situ gel for the treatment of age-related macular degeneration. Expert Opin Drug Deliv 2020; 17:603-619. [PMID: 32105151 DOI: 10.1080/17425247.2020.1735348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Background: Lutein is the primary macular pigment with an favorable effect on the treatment of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). However, the poor water solubility of lutein hinders its absorption and delivery. In this study, a penetratin-modified lutein nanoemulsion in-situ gel (GEL) was prepared for the treatment of AMD.Methods: A nanoemulsion (NE) was prepared and modified with penetratin (P-NE) to improve the penetration. The effect of penetratin was evaluated by cell uptake and intraocular distribution assays. A dry AMD model was induced using NaIO3, and the therapeutic effect was evaluated by electroretinography, the number of apoptosis cells and the reactive oxygen species (ROS) level.Results: Lutein showed a good ability to protect ARPE-19 from the damage of H2O2 and the uptake rate of P-NE was significantly higher than NE. In the efficacy experiments, the structure of retina was significantly improved after treatment, the apoptosis rate decreased from 31.98% to 2.05%, and the level of ROS was significantly decreased (p < 0.0001).Conclusions: With the aid of penetratin, lutein could be delivered to the retina effectively. The P-NE GEL could evidently inhibit the apoptosis and ROS, demonstrating that the P-NE GEL has a good application prospect in the treatment of AMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ge
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
| | - Anan Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
| | - Rong Sun
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
| | - Jiawen Xu
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China.,Department of Pharmacy, Fuwai Hospital Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences, Shenzhen, PR China
| | - Tian Yin
- School of Functional Food and Wine, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
| | - Haibing He
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
| | - Jingxin Gou
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
| | - Jun Kong
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
| | - Xing Tang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning, PR China
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Zhang J, Yang J, Xu C, Hu Q, Hu J, Chen J, Jiang H. Down-regulation of Suv39h1 attenuates neointima formation after carotid artery injury in diabetic rats. J Cell Mol Med 2019; 24:973-983. [PMID: 31736204 PMCID: PMC6933362 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.14809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Patients with diabetes have an increased risk of vascular complications. Suv39h1, a histone methyltransferase, plays a protective role against myocardial injury in diabetes. Herein, we intend to explore whether Suv39h1 could affect neointimal formation after vascular injury in diabetic rats and reveal the underlying mechanism. In this study, we generated adenovirus expressing Suv39h1 as well as lentivirus expressing Suv39h1‐targeting shRNA and evaluated the significance of Suv39h1 in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) under diabetic conditions. In vitro, we examined proliferative and migratory behaviours as well as the underlying signalling mechanisms in VSMCs in response to high glucose treatment. In vivo, we induced diabetes in SD rats with streptozocin and established the common carotid artery balloon injury model. Suv39h1 was found to be both necessary and sufficient to promote VSMC proliferation and migration under high glucose conditions. We observed corresponding changes in intracellular signalling molecules including complement C3 and phosphor‐ERK1/2. However, either up‐regulating or down‐regulating Suv39h1, phosphor‐p38 level was not significantly affected. Consistently, Suv39h1 overexpression led to accelerated neointima formation, while knocking down Suv39h1 reduced it following carotid artery injury in diabetic rats. Using microarray analyses, we showed that altering the Suv39h1 level in vivo dramatically altered the expression of myriad genes mediating different biological processes and molecular function. This study reveals the novel role of Suv39h1 in VSMCs of diabetes and suggests its potential role as a therapeutic target in diabetic vascular injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China.,Department of Cardiology, The First College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University & Yichang Central People's Hospital, Yichang, China
| | - Jian Yang
- Department of Cardiology, The First College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University & Yichang Central People's Hospital, Yichang, China
| | - Changwu Xu
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Qi Hu
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Jun Hu
- Central Laboratory, The First College of Clinical Medical Science, China Three Gorges University & Yichang Central People's Hospital, Yichang, China
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
| | - Hong Jiang
- Department of Cardiology, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, China
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Rozanowska M, Edge R, Land EJ, Navaratnam S, Sarna T, Truscott TG. Scavenging of Retinoid Cation Radicals by Urate, Trolox, and α-, β-, γ-, and δ-Tocopherols. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20112799. [PMID: 31181693 PMCID: PMC6600601 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20112799] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2019] [Revised: 06/02/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Retinoids are present in human tissues exposed to light and under increased risk of oxidative stress, such as the retina and skin. Retinoid cation radicals can be formed as a result of the interaction between retinoids and other radicals or photoexcitation with light. It has been shown that such semi-oxidized retinoids can oxidize certain amino acids and proteins, and that α-tocopherol can scavenge the cation radicals of retinol and retinoic acid. The aim of this study was to determine (i) whether β-, γ-, and δ-tocopherols can also scavenge these radicals, and (ii) whether tocopherols can scavenge the cation radicals of another form of vitamin A—retinal. The retinoid cation radicals were generated by the pulse radiolysis of benzene or aqueous solution in the presence of a selected retinoid under oxidizing conditions, and the kinetics of retinoid cation radical decays were measured in the absence and presence of different tocopherols, Trolox or urate. The bimolecular rate constants are the highest for the scavenging of cation radicals of retinal, (7 to 8) × 109 M−1·s−1, followed by retinoic acid, (0.03 to 5.6) × 109 M−1·s−1, and retinol, (0.08 to 1.6) × 108 M−1·s−1. Delta-tocopherol is the least effective scavenger of semi-oxidized retinol and retinoic acid. The hydrophilic analogue of α-tocopherol, Trolox, is substantially less efficient at scavenging retinoid cation radicals than α-tocopherol and urate, but it is more efficient at scavenging the cation radicals of retinoic acid and retinol than δ-tocopherol. The scavenging rate constants indicate that tocopherols can effectively compete with amino acids and proteins for retinoid cation radicals, thereby protecting these important biomolecules from oxidation. Our results provide another mechanism by which tocopherols can diminish the oxidative damage to the skin and retina and thereby protect from skin photosensitivity and the development and/or progression of changes in blinding retinal diseases such as Stargardt’s disease and age-related macular degeneration (AMD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Malgorzata Rozanowska
- Cardiff Institute of Tissue Engineering and Repair, Cardiff University, Wales CF10 3AX, UK.
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff, Wales CF24 4HQ, UK.
| | - Ruth Edge
- Dalton Cumbrian Facility, The University of Manchester, Westlakes Science Park, Moor Row, Cumbria CA24 3HA, UK.
| | - Edward J Land
- Free Radical Research Facility, Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC) Daresbury Laboratory, Warrington WA4 4AD, UK.
| | - Suppiah Navaratnam
- Biomedical Sciences Research Institute, University of Salford, Manchester M5 4WT, UK.
| | - Tadeusz Sarna
- Department of Biophysics, Faculty of Biotechnology, Jagiellonian University, 30-387 Krakow, Poland.
| | - T George Truscott
- School of Chemical and Physical Sciences, Lennard-Jones Building, Keele University, Staffordshire ST5 5BG, UK.
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