1
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Castanedo LAM, Matta CF. Prebiotic N-(2-Aminoethyl)-Glycine (AEG)-Assisted Synthesis of Proto-RNA? J Mol Evol 2024:10.1007/s00239-024-10185-w. [PMID: 39052031 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-024-10185-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
Quantum mechanical calculations are used to explore the thermodynamics of possible prebiotic synthesis of the building blocks of nucleic acids. Different combinations of D-ribofuranose (Ribf) and N-(2-aminoethyl)-glycine (AEG) (trifunctional connectors (TCs)); the nature of the Ribf, its anomeric form, and its ring puckering (conformation); and the nature of the nucleobases (recognition units (RUs)) are considered. The combinatorial explosion of possible nucleosides has been drastically reduced on physicochemical grounds followed by a detailed thermodynamic evaluation of alternative synthetic pathways. The synthesis of nucleosides containing N-(2-aminoethyl)-glycine (AEG) is predicted to be thermodynamically favored suggesting a possible role of AEG as a component of an ancestral proto-RNA that may have preceded today's nucleic acids. A new pathway for the building of free nucleotides (exemplified by 5'-uridine monophosphate (UMP)) and of AEG dipeptides is proposed. This new pathway leads to a spontaneous formation of free UMP assisted by an AEG nucleoside in an aqueous environment. This appears to be a workaround to the "water problem" that prohibits the synthesis of nucleotides in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lázaro A M Castanedo
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Mary's University, Halifax, NS, B3H 3C3, Canada
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, NS, B3M 2J6, Canada
| | - Chérif F Matta
- Department of Chemistry, Saint Mary's University, Halifax, NS, B3H 3C3, Canada.
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Mount Saint Vincent University, Halifax, NS, B3M 2J6, Canada.
- Département de Chimie, Université Laval, Québec, QC, G1V 0A6, Canada.
- Department of Chemistry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, NS, B3H 4J3, Canada.
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2
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Wang B, Wu B, Xu M, Zuo K, Han Y, Zhou Z. Transcriptome Analysis Reveals the Role of Sucrose in the Production of Latilactobacillus sakei L3 Exopolysaccharide. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7185. [PMID: 39000292 PMCID: PMC11241291 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25137185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2024] [Revised: 06/21/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Latilactobacillus (L.) sakei is a species of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) mostly studied according to its application in food fermentation. Previously, L. sakei L3 was isolated by our laboratory and possessed the capability of high exopolysaccharide (EPS) yield during sucrose-added fermentation. However, the understanding of sucrose promoting EPS production is still limited. Here, we analyzed the growth characteristics of L. sakei L3 and alterations of its transcriptional profiles during sucrose-added fermentation. The results showed that L. sakei L3 could survive between pH 4.0 and pH 9.0, tolerant to NaCl (<10%, w/v) and urea (<6%, w/v). Meanwhile, transcriptomic analysis showed that a total of 426 differentially expressed genes and eight non-coding RNAs were identified. Genes associated with sucrose metabolism were significantly induced, so L. sakei L3 increased the utilization of sucrose to produce EPS, while genes related to uridine monophosphate (UMP), fatty acids and folate synthetic pathways were significantly inhibited, indicating that L. sakei L3 decreased self-growth, substance and energy metabolism to satisfy EPS production. Overall, transcriptome analysis provided valuable insights into the mechanisms by which L. sakei L3 utilizes sucrose for EPS biosynthesis. The study provided a theoretical foundation for the further application of functional EPS in the food industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Binbin Wang
- School of Life Sciences, Shanxi Normal University, Taiyuan 030000, China
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Baomei Wu
- School of Life Sciences, Shanxi Normal University, Taiyuan 030000, China
| | - Min Xu
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Kaiyue Zuo
- School of Life Sciences, Shanxi Normal University, Taiyuan 030000, China
| | - Ye Han
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Zhijiang Zhou
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
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3
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Stolar T, Pearce BK, Etter M, Truong KN, Ostojić T, Krajnc A, Mali G, Rossi B, Molčanov K, Lončarić I, Meštrović E, Užarević K, Grisanti L. Base-pairing of uracil and 2,6-diaminopurine: from cocrystals to photoreactivity. iScience 2024; 27:109894. [PMID: 38783999 PMCID: PMC11112615 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.109894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 12/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
We show that the non-canonical nucleobase 2,6-diaminopurine (D) spontaneously base pairs with uracil (U) in water and the solid state without the need to be attached to the ribose-phosphate backbone. Depending on the reaction conditions, D and U assemble in thermodynamically stable hydrated and anhydrated D-U base-paired cocrystals. Under UV irradiation, an aqueous solution of D-U base-pair undergoes photochemical degradation, while a pure aqueous solution of U does not. Our simulations suggest that D may trigger the U photodimerization and show that complementary base-pairing modifies the photochemical properties of nucleobases, which might have implications for prebiotic chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomislav Stolar
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
- Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Richard-Willstätter-Straße 11, 12489 Berlin, Germany
| | - Ben K.D. Pearce
- Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N. Charles Street, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Martin Etter
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), Notkestraße 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Khai-Nghi Truong
- Rigaku Europe SE, Hugenottenallee 167, 63263 Neu-Isenburg, Germany
| | - Tea Ostojić
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Andraž Krajnc
- National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Gregor Mali
- National Institute of Chemistry, Hajdrihova 19, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Barbara Rossi
- Elettra Sincrotrone Trieste, Strada Statale 14 km 163.5, 34149 Trieste, Italy
| | | | - Ivor Lončarić
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Ernest Meštrović
- Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University of Zagreb, Trg Marka Marulića 19, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | | | - Luca Grisanti
- Ruđer Bošković Institute, Bijenička c. 54, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
- National Research Council - Materials Foundry Institute (CNR-IOM) c/o SISSA (International School for Advanced Studies), Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy
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4
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Liu DY, Wang PF, Ruan YJ, Wang XL, Hu XY, Yang Q, Liu J, Wen MM, Zhang CZ, Xiao YH, Liu XG. Assembly of Heterocyclic C-Glycosides by Ru-Catalyzed C-H Activation/Cyclization with Carbonyl Sulfoxonium Ylide Glyco-Reagents. Org Lett 2024; 26:5092-5097. [PMID: 38848493 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.4c01287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
New carbonyl sulfoxonium ylide glyco-reagents have been developed, enabling the synthesis of versatile heteroarene C-glycosides through a Ru-catalyzed C-H activation/annulation strategy. These reactions tolerate various saccharide donors and represent a significant advance in the stereoselective synthesis of heterocyclic C-glycosides. Furthermore, the strategy and methods could be applied to large-scale reactions and late-stage modifications of some structurally complex natural products or drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deng-Yin Liu
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Peng-Fei Wang
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Yu-Jun Ruan
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Xiao-Li Wang
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Xin-Yue Hu
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Qian Yang
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Jing Liu
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Miao-Miao Wen
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Cong-Zhen Zhang
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Yu-He Xiao
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
| | - Xu-Ge Liu
- The Zhongzhou Laboratory for Integrative Biology, State Key Laboratory of Antiviral Drugs, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, Henan 475004, China
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5
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Todd ZR, Lozano GG, Kufner CL, Ranjan S, Catling DC, Sasselov DD. UV Transmission in Prebiotic Environments on Early Earth. ASTROBIOLOGY 2024; 24:559-569. [PMID: 38768432 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2023.0077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Ultraviolet (UV) light is likely to have played important roles in surficial origins of life scenarios, potentially as a productive source of energy and molecular activation, as a selective means to remove unwanted side products, or as a destructive mechanism resulting in loss of molecules/biomolecules over time. The transmission of UV light through prebiotic waters depends upon the chemical constituents of such waters, but constraints on this transmission are limited. Here, we experimentally measure the molar decadic extinction coefficients for a number of small molecules used in various prebiotic synthetic schemes. We find that many small feedstock molecules absorb most at short (∼200 nm) wavelengths, with decreasing UV absorption at longer wavelengths. For comparison, we also measured the nucleobase adenine and found that adenine absorbs significantly more than the simpler molecules often invoked in prebiotic synthesis. Our results enable the calculation of UV photon penetration under varying chemical scenarios and allow further constraints on plausibility and self-consistency of such scenarios. While the precise path that prebiotic chemistry took remains elusive, improved understanding of the UV environment in prebiotically plausible waters can help constrain both the chemistry and the environmental conditions that may allow such chemistry to occur.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoe R Todd
- Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Chemistry, Department of Astronomy, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Gabriella G Lozano
- Center for Astrophysics, Harvard and Smithsonian, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Corinna L Kufner
- Center for Astrophysics, Harvard and Smithsonian, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Sukrit Ranjan
- Lunar & Planetary Laboratory/Department of Planetary Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona, USA
| | - David C Catling
- Department of Earth and Space Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Dimitar D Sasselov
- Center for Astrophysics, Harvard and Smithsonian, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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6
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Westarp S, Brandt F, Neumair L, Betz C, Dagane A, Kemper S, Jacob CR, Neubauer P, Kurreck A, Kaspar F. Nucleoside Phosphorylases make N7-xanthosine. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3625. [PMID: 38684649 PMCID: PMC11058261 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47287-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Modern, highly evolved nucleoside-processing enzymes are known to exhibit perfect regioselectivity over the glycosylation of purine nucleobases at N9. We herein report an exception to this paradigm. Wild-type nucleoside phosphorylases also furnish N7-xanthosine, a "non-native" ribosylation regioisomer of xanthosine. This unusual nucleoside possesses several atypical physicochemical properties such as redshifted absorption spectra, a high equilibrium constant of phosphorolysis and low acidity. Ultimately, the biosynthesis of this previously unknown natural product illustrates how even highly evolved, essential enzymes from primary metabolism are imperfect catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Westarp
- Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty III Process Sciences, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstrasse 76, 13355, Berlin, Germany
- BioNukleo GmbH, Ackerstraße 76, 13355, Berlin, Germany
| | - Felix Brandt
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Gaußstraße 17, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Lena Neumair
- Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty III Process Sciences, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstrasse 76, 13355, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christina Betz
- Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty III Process Sciences, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstrasse 76, 13355, Berlin, Germany
| | - Amin Dagane
- Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty III Process Sciences, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstrasse 76, 13355, Berlin, Germany
| | - Sebastian Kemper
- Institute for Chemistry, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623, Berlin, Germany
| | - Christoph R Jacob
- Institute of Physical and Theoretical Chemistry, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Gaußstraße 17, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Peter Neubauer
- Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty III Process Sciences, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstrasse 76, 13355, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anke Kurreck
- Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, Institute of Biotechnology, Faculty III Process Sciences, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstrasse 76, 13355, Berlin, Germany.
- BioNukleo GmbH, Ackerstraße 76, 13355, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Felix Kaspar
- Institute for Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstraße 7, 38106, Braunschweig, Germany.
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7
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Iglesias-Groth S, Cataldo F, Marin-Dobrincic M. Infrared Spectroscopy of RNA Nucleosides in a Wide Range of Temperatures. Life (Basel) 2024; 14:436. [PMID: 38672708 PMCID: PMC11051033 DOI: 10.3390/life14040436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/20/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The RNA world hypothesis suggests that early cellular ancestors relied solely on RNA molecules for both genetic information storage and cellular functions. RNA, composed of four nucleosides-adenosine, guanosine, cytidine, and uridine-forms the basis of this theory. These nucleosides consist of purine nucleobases, adenine and guanine, and pyrimidine nucleobases, cytosine and uracil, bonded to ribose sugar. Notably, carbonaceous chondrite meteorites have revealed the presence of these bases and sugar, hinting at the potential existence of nucleosides in space. This study aims to present the infrared spectra of four RNA nucleosides commonly found in terrestrial biochemistry, facilitating their detection in space, especially in astrobiological and astrochemical contexts. Laboratory measurements involved obtaining mid- and far-IR spectra at three temperatures (-180 °C, room temperature, and +180 °C), followed by calculating molar extinction coefficients (ε) and integrated molar absorptivities (ψ) for corresponding bands. These spectral data, along with ε and ψ values, serve to provide quantitative insights into the presence and relative abundance of nucleosides in space and aid in their detection.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Franco Cataldo
- Actinium Chemical Research Institute, Via Casilina 1626A, 00133 Rome, Italy;
| | - Martina Marin-Dobrincic
- Applied Physics and Naval Technology Department, Universidad Politécnica de Cartagena, C/Doctor Fleming, s/n., 30202 Cartagena, Spain;
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8
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Rodriguez LE, Altair T, Hermis NY, Jia TZ, Roche TP, Steller LH, Weber JM. Chapter 4: A Geological and Chemical Context for the Origins of Life on Early Earth. ASTROBIOLOGY 2024; 24:S76-S106. [PMID: 38498817 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2021.0139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/20/2024]
Abstract
Within the first billion years of Earth's history, the planet transformed from a hot, barren, and inhospitable landscape to an environment conducive to the emergence and persistence of life. This chapter will review the state of knowledge concerning early Earth's (Hadean/Eoarchean) geochemical environment, including the origin and composition of the planet's moon, crust, oceans, atmosphere, and organic content. It will also discuss abiotic geochemical cycling of the CHONPS elements and how these species could have been converted to biologically relevant building blocks, polymers, and chemical networks. Proposed environments for abiogenesis events are also described and evaluated. An understanding of the geochemical processes under which life may have emerged can better inform our assessment of the habitability of other worlds, the potential complexity that abiotic chemistry can achieve (which has implications for putative biosignatures), and the possibility for biochemistries that are vastly different from those on Earth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura E Rodriguez
- NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
- Lunar and Planetary Institute, Universities Space Research Association, Houston, Texas, USA. (Current)
| | - Thiago Altair
- Institute of Chemistry of São Carlos, Universidade de São Paulo, São Carlos, Brazil
- Department of Chemistry, College of the Atlantic, Bar Harbor, Maine, USA. (Current)
| | - Ninos Y Hermis
- NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
- Department of Physics and Space Sciences, University of Granada, Granada Spain. (Current)
| | - Tony Z Jia
- Earth-Life Science Institute, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Ookayama, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
- Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Tyler P Roche
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Luke H Steller
- Australian Centre for Astrobiology, and School of Biological, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia
| | - Jessica M Weber
- NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California, USA
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9
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Roche TP, Nedumpurath PJ, Karunakaran SC, Schuster GB, Hud NV. One-Pot Formation of Pairing Proto-RNA Nucleotides and Their Supramolecular Assemblies. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:2200. [PMID: 38004340 PMCID: PMC10672710 DOI: 10.3390/life13112200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Most contemporary theories for the chemical origins of life include the prebiotic synthesis of informational polymers, including strong interpretations of the RNA World hypothesis. Existing challenges to the prebiotic emergence of RNA have encouraged exploration of the possibility that RNA was preceded by an ancestral informational polymer, or proto-RNA, that formed more easily on the early Earth. We have proposed that the proto-nucleobases of proto-RNA would have readily formed glycosides with ribose and that these proto-nucleosides would have formed base pairs as monomers in aqueous solution, two properties not exhibited by the extant nucleosides or nucleotides. Here we demonstrate that putative proto-nucleotides of the model proto-nucleobases barbituric acid and melamine can be formed in the same one-pot reaction with ribose-5-phosphate. Additionally, the proto-nucleotides formed in these reactions spontaneously form assemblies that are consistent with the presence of Watson-Crick-like base pairs. Together, these results provide further support for the possibility that heterocycles closely related to the extant bases of RNA facilitated the prebiotic emergence of RNA-like molecules, which were eventually replaced by RNA over the course of chemical and biological evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Nicholas V. Hud
- School of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA; (T.P.R.); (P.J.N.); (S.C.K.); (G.B.S.)
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10
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Xiao X, Han P, Wan JP, Liu J. Stereoselective Synthesis of Indolyl- C-glycosides Enabled by Sequential Aminopalladation and Heck Glycosylation of 2-Alkynylanilines with Glycals. Org Lett 2023; 25:7170-7175. [PMID: 37756216 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.3c02688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/29/2023]
Abstract
An efficient and general approach for the synthesis of indolyl-C-glycosides via aminopalladation and subsequent Heck-type glycosylation of easily available 2-alkynylanilines and glycals has been developed. This protocol features excellent stereoselectivity, a broad substrate scope, and mild reaction conditions. In addition, 2,3-pseudoglycals also successfully participated in this cascade reaction, affording C2/C3-branched indolyl glycosides with high regio-/stereoselectivity. The utility of this protocol was also demonstrated by a large-scale reaction and diversified synthetic transformations of the desired products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Xiao
- National Engineering Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330022, P. R. China
| | - Puren Han
- National Engineering Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330022, P. R. China
| | - Jie-Ping Wan
- National Engineering Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330022, P. R. China
| | - Jianchao Liu
- National Engineering Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, Jiangxi 330022, P. R. China
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11
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Hudait N, Karmakar A, Basu A, Kar B, Bhuyan S, Chhetri K, Kundu S, Gopal Roy B, Sengupta J. Transglycosylation Reaction: Synthesis and Supramolecular Study of Carbohydrate‐Cased
C
2
‐Symmetric 20‐ and 22‐Membered Macrocyclic Dinucleosides. ChemistrySelect 2023. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202204311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Nandagopal Hudait
- Department of Chemistry West Bengal State University 700126 Barasat Kolkata India
| | - Arun Karmakar
- Electrochemical Process Engineering Division CSIR-CECRI 630003 Karaikudi India
| | - Arpan Basu
- Department of Chemistry West Bengal State University 700126 Barasat Kolkata, India
| | - Binoy Kar
- Department of Chemistry School of Advanced Science Vellore Institute of Technology 632014 Vellore Tamil Nadu India
| | - Samuzal Bhuyan
- Department of Chemistry Sikkim University 737102 Gangtok India
| | - Karan Chhetri
- Department of Chemistry Sikkim University 737102 Gangtok India
| | - Subrata Kundu
- Electrochemical Process Engineering Division CSIR-CECRI 630003 Karaikudi India
| | - Biswajit Gopal Roy
- Department of Chemistry Sikkim University 737102 Gangtok India
- Department of Chemistry Sikkim University 737102 Gangtok India
| | - Jhimli Sengupta
- Department of Chemistry West Bengal State University 700126 Barasat Kolkata India
- Department of Chemistry West Bengal State University 700126 Barasat Kolkata, India
- Department of Chemistry School of Advanced Science Vellore Institute of Technology 632014 Vellore Tamil Nadu India
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12
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Roche TP, Fialho DM, Menor-Salván C, Krishnamurthy R, Schuster GB, Hud NV. A Plausible Prebiotic Path to Nucleosides: Ribosides and Related Aldosides Generated from Ribulose, Fructose, and Similar Abiotic Precursors. Chemistry 2023; 29:e202203036. [PMID: 36261321 DOI: 10.1002/chem.202203036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The prebiotic origins of ribose, nucleosides, and eventually RNA are enduring questions whose answers are central to the RNA world hypothesis. The abiotic synthesis of sugars was first demonstrated over a century ago, but no known prebiotic reaction produces ribose (an aldose sugar) selectively and in good yield. In contrast, ribulose, and fructose (ketose sugars) and other monosaccharides are formed in high yield by several robust abiotic reactions. It is reported here that ketose sugars - both ketopentoses and ketohexoes - serve as precursors for the formation of ribosides and other aldosides, as demonstrated by glycoside-forming reactions involving barbituric acid, a plausibly prebiotic nucleobase. Moreover, a one-pot reaction of glyceraldehyde and barbituric acid was discovered which under mild conditions, and without special minerals or other catalysts, results in the formation of glycosides. These results reveal that an exclusive or high-yielding generation of free ribose was not required for its incorporation into processes that provided the foundations for life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tyler P Roche
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - David M Fialho
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Cesar Menor-Salván
- Departmento de Biología de Sistemas/IQAR, Universidad de Alcalá, Madrid, 28806, Spain
| | | | - Gary B Schuster
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
| | - Nicholas V Hud
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, 30332, USA
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13
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Park HS, Sun R, Lee EJ, Kim J, Hur NH. Triazole-Bridged Zinc Dinuclear Complexes: Mechanochemical Synthesis, Crystal Structure, and Biological Activity. ACS OMEGA 2022; 7:40860-40868. [PMID: 36406524 PMCID: PMC9670724 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c03715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Two zinc (Zn) complexes, [Zn2(DAT)2Cl4] (I) and [Zn2(DAT)2(NO3)4] (II), were prepared by grinding 3,5-diamino-1,2,4-triazole (C2H5N5, DAT) with Zn precursors such as ZnCl2 and Zn(NO3)2, respectively. This solid-state reaction gives the corresponding Zn complex as the sole product in over 99% yield. This mechanochemical method promotes the selective formation of Zn complexes different from those obtained using the conventional solution-based route. The crystal structures of the two complexes were analyzed by single-crystal X-ray diffraction. Complex (I) crystallizes in the monoclinic space group P21/c, whereas complex (II) crystallizes in the triclinic space group P 1̅. Each complex is characterized by the presence of a characteristic DAT-bridged dimer with one DAT ligand per Zn atom, and the DAT ligand provides a bridge between the two Zn metals. All Zn centers of (I) and (II) adopted a slightly distorted tetrahedral geometry. Both complexes contain a hexanuclear Zn2N4 ring, but their ring structures are different. Complex (I) possesses a boat geometry, while complex (II) has a nearly planar structure. The Zn-bound chlorides of complex (I) form intermolecular N-H···Cl hydrogen bonds that link neighboring molecules. In complex (II), the O atoms in the nitrate groups are hydrogen-bonded to the DAT ligand via O···H-N linkages. Both complexes exhibit blue emissions in the solid state at ambient temperature. They were evaluated as anticancer agents in HeLa, NCCIT, and MCF-7 cancer cell lines, exhibiting promising anticancer activities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee Sun Park
- Department
of Chemistry, Sogang University, Seoul 04107, South Korea
| | - Ruijing Sun
- Department
of Life Science, Sogang University, Seoul 04107, South Korea
| | - Eun Joo Lee
- Department
of Life Science, Sogang University, Seoul 04107, South Korea
| | - Jungho Kim
- Department
of Life Science, Sogang University, Seoul 04107, South Korea
| | - Nam Hwi Hur
- Department
of Chemistry, Sogang University, Seoul 04107, South Korea
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14
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Xu F, Crisp A, Schinkel T, Dubini RCA, Hübner S, Becker S, Schelter F, Rovó P, Carell T. Isoxazole Nucleosides as Building Blocks for a Plausible Proto-RNA. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202211945. [PMID: 36063071 PMCID: PMC9828505 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202211945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
The question of how RNA, as the principal carrier of genetic information evolved is fundamentally important for our understanding of the origin of life. The RNA molecule is far too complex to have formed in one evolutionary step, suggesting that ancestral proto-RNAs (first ancestor of RNA) may have existed, which evolved over time into the RNA of today. Here we show that isoxazole nucleosides, which are quickly formed from hydroxylamine, cyanoacetylene, urea and ribose, are plausible precursors for RNA. The isoxazole nucleoside can rearrange within an RNA-strand to give cytidine, which leads to an increase of pairing stability. If the proto-RNA contains a canonical seed-nucleoside with defined stereochemistry, the seed-nucleoside can control the configuration of the anomeric center that forms during the in-RNA transformation. The results demonstrate that RNA could have emerged from evolutionarily primitive precursor isoxazole ribosides after strand formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix Xu
- Department of ChemistryLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenButenandtstr. 5–1381377MunichGermany
| | - Antony Crisp
- Department of ChemistryLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenButenandtstr. 5–1381377MunichGermany
| | - Thea Schinkel
- Department of ChemistryLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenButenandtstr. 5–1381377MunichGermany
| | - Romeo C. A. Dubini
- Department of ChemistryLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenButenandtstr. 5–1381377MunichGermany
| | - Sarah Hübner
- Department of ChemistryLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenButenandtstr. 5–1381377MunichGermany
| | - Sidney Becker
- Department of ChemistryLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenButenandtstr. 5–1381377MunichGermany,Current address: Max Planck Institute of Molecular PhysiologyOtto-Hahn-Straße 1144227DortmundGermany
| | - Florian Schelter
- Department of ChemistryLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenButenandtstr. 5–1381377MunichGermany
| | - Petra Rovó
- Department of ChemistryLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenButenandtstr. 5–1381377MunichGermany,Current address: Institute of Science and Technology Austria (ISTA)Am Campus 13400KlosterneuburgAustria
| | - Thomas Carell
- Department of ChemistryLudwig-Maximilians-Universität MünchenButenandtstr. 5–1381377MunichGermany
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15
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Sydow C, Seiband C, Siegle AF, Trapp O. Phosphorylation in liquid sulfur dioxide under prebiotically plausible conditions. Commun Chem 2022; 5:143. [PMID: 36697619 PMCID: PMC9814524 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-022-00761-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 10/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
In nature, organophosphates provide key functions such as information storage and transport, structural tasks, and energy transfer. Since condensations are unfavourable in water and nucleophilic attack at phosphate is kinetically inhibited, various abiogenesis hypotheses for the formation of organophosphate are discussed. Recently, the application of phosphites as phosphorylation agent showed promising results. However, elevated temperatures and additional reaction steps are required to obtain organophosphates. Here we show that in liquid sulfur dioxide, which acts as solvent and oxidant, efficient organophosphate formation is enabled. Phosphorous acid yields up to 32.6% 5' nucleoside monophosphate, 3.6% 5' nucleoside diphosphate, and the formation of nucleoside triphosphates and dinucleotides in a single reaction step at room temperature. In addition to the phosphorylation of organic compounds, we observed diserine formation. Thus, we suggest volcanic environments as reaction sites for biopolymer formation on Early Earth. Because of the simple recyclability of sulfur dioxide, the reaction is also interesting for synthesis chemistry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Constanze Sydow
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XDepartment of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Christiane Seiband
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XDepartment of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Alexander F. Siegle
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XDepartment of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany
| | - Oliver Trapp
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XDepartment of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Ludwig-Maximilians-University, Butenandtstr. 5-13, 81377 Munich, Germany ,grid.429508.20000 0004 0491 677XMax-Planck-Institute for Astronomy, Königstuhl 17, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
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16
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Kumar Bandela A, Sadihov‐Hanoch H, Cohen‐Luria R, Gordon C, Blake A, Poppitz G, Lynn DG, Ashkenasy G. The Systems Chemistry of Nucleic‐acid‐Peptide Networks. Isr J Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.202200030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anil Kumar Bandela
- Department of Chemistry Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer-Sheva 84105 Israel
| | - Hava Sadihov‐Hanoch
- Department of Chemistry Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer-Sheva 84105 Israel
| | - Rivka Cohen‐Luria
- Department of Chemistry Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer-Sheva 84105 Israel
| | - Christella Gordon
- Chemistry and Biology Emory University 1521 Dickey Drive NE Atlanta GA 30322 USA
| | - Alexis Blake
- Chemistry and Biology Emory University 1521 Dickey Drive NE Atlanta GA 30322 USA
| | - George Poppitz
- Chemistry and Biology Emory University 1521 Dickey Drive NE Atlanta GA 30322 USA
| | - David G. Lynn
- Chemistry and Biology Emory University 1521 Dickey Drive NE Atlanta GA 30322 USA
| | - Gonen Ashkenasy
- Department of Chemistry Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer-Sheva 84105 Israel
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17
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Krishnamurthy R, Goldman AD, Liberles DA, Rogers KL, Tor Y. Nucleobases in Meteorites to Nucleobases in RNA and DNA? J Mol Evol 2022; 90:328-331. [PMID: 35960316 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-022-10069-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/29/2022] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
Abstract
Nucleic acids likely played a foundational role in the origin of life. However, the prebiotic chemistry of nucleoside and nucleotide synthesis has proved challenging on a number of fronts. The recent discovery of both pyrimidine and purine nucleobases in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites has garnered much attention from both the popular press and the scientific community. Here, we discuss these findings in the context of nucleoside/nucleotide prebiotic chemistry. We consider that the main challenge of prebiotic nucleoside synthesis, that of nucleosidic bond formation, is not addressed by the identification nucleobases in meteorites. We further discuss issues of selection that arise from the observation that such meteorites contain both canonical and non-canonical nucleobases. In sum, we argue that, despite the major analytical achievement of identifying and characterizing nucleobases in meteorites, this observation does little to advance our understanding of the prebiotic chemistry that could have led to the first genetic molecules that gave rise to us.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramanarayanan Krishnamurthy
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA, USA. .,NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Aaron D Goldman
- Department of Biology, Oberlin College and Conservatory, Oberlin, OH, USA.,Blue Marble Space Institute of Science, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - David A Liberles
- Department of Biology and Center for Computational Genetics and Genomics, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Karyn L Rogers
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences and Rensselaer Astrobiology Research and Education Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
| | - Yitzhak Tor
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California-San Diego, La Jolla, CA, USA
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18
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Whitaker D, Powner MW. Prebiotic synthesis and triphosphorylation of 3'-amino-TNA nucleosides. Nat Chem 2022; 14:766-774. [PMID: 35778563 DOI: 10.1038/s41557-022-00982-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Nucleosides are essential to the emergence of life, and so their synthesis is a key challenge for prebiotic chemistry. Although amino-nucleosides have enhanced reactivity in water compared with ribonucleosides, they are assumed to be prebiotically irrelevant due to perceived difficulties with their selective formation. Here we demonstrate that 3'-amino-TNA nucleosides (TNA, threose nucleic acid) are formed diastereoselectively and regiospecifically from prebiotic feedstocks in four high-yielding steps. Phosphate provides an unexpected resolution, leading to spontaneous purification of the genetically relevant threo-isomer. Furthermore, 3'-amino-TNA nucleosides are shown to be phosphorylated directly in water, under mild conditions with cyclic trimetaphosphate, forming a nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) in a manner not feasible for canonical nucleosides. Our results suggest 3'-amino-TNA nucleosides may have been present on the early Earth, and the ease with which these NTPs form, alongside the inherent selectivity for the Watson-Crick base-pairing threo-monomer, warrants further study of the role they could play during the emergence of life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Whitaker
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, London, UK
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19
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Huang Y, Gao T, Sun C, Han T, Zang M, Wang D, Xu W. An electrochemical platform for guanosine-5’-monophosphate detection using gold doped polypyrrole nanocomposite embedded on graphitic carbon nitride. Electrochim Acta 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2022.140271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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20
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Kloprogge JT(T, Hartman H. Clays and the Origin of Life: The Experiments. Life (Basel) 2022; 12:life12020259. [PMID: 35207546 PMCID: PMC8880559 DOI: 10.3390/life12020259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Revised: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There are three groups of scientists dominating the search for the origin of life: the organic chemists (the Soup), the molecular biologists (RNA world), and the inorganic chemists (metabolism and transient-state metal ions), all of which have experimental adjuncts. It is time for Clays and the Origin of Life to have its experimental adjunct. The clay data coming from Mars and carbonaceous chondrites have necessitated a review of the role that clays played in the origin of life on Earth. The data from Mars have suggested that Fe-clays such as nontronite, ferrous saponites, and several other clays were formed on early Mars when it had sufficient water. This raised the question of the possible role that these clays may have played in the origin of life on Mars. This has put clays front and center in the studies on the origin of life not only on Mars but also here on Earth. One of the major questions is: What was the catalytic role of Fe-clays in the origin and development of metabolism here on Earth? First, there is the recent finding of a chiral amino acid (isovaline) that formed on the surface of a clay mineral on several carbonaceous chondrites. This points to the formation of amino acids on the surface of clay minerals on carbonaceous chondrites from simpler molecules, e.g., CO2, NH3, and HCN. Additionally, there is the catalytic role of small organic molecules, such as dicarboxylic acids and amino acids found on carbonaceous chondrites, in the formation of Fe-clays themselves. Amino acids and nucleotides adsorb on clay surfaces on Earth and subsequently polymerize. All of these observations and more must be subjected to strict experimental analysis. This review provides an overview of what has happened and is now happening in the experimental clay world related to the origin of life. The emphasis is on smectite-group clay minerals, such as montmorillonite and nontronite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Teunis (Theo) Kloprogge
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines Visayas, Miagao 5023, Philippines
- Correspondence: (J.T.K.); (H.H.)
| | - Hyman Hartman
- Department of Earth Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
- Correspondence: (J.T.K.); (H.H.)
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21
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Belen’kii LI, Gazieva GA, Evdokimenkova YB, Soboleva NO. The literature of heterocyclic chemistry, Part XX, 2020. ADVANCES IN HETEROCYCLIC CHEMISTRY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.aihch.2022.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
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22
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Chen QQ, Zhao ZR, Wang X. A Prebiotic Ribosylation of Pyrimidine Nucleobases Enabled by Metal Cations and Clay Minerals. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11121381. [PMID: 34947911 PMCID: PMC8707481 DOI: 10.3390/life11121381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Revised: 12/02/2021] [Accepted: 12/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a prebiotically relevant solution to the N1-ribosylation of pyrimidine nucleobases, a well-known challenge to the RNA world hypothesis. We found that the presence of metal cations and clay minerals enable the previously unachievable direct ribosylation of uracil. Spectroscopy and chromatography analyses confirmed the formation of ribosylated uracil. The method can be extended to the ribosylation of 2-pyrimidinone. These findings are also compatible with the metal-doped-clay model, developed by our lab for the unified route of the selection of ribose and subsequent syntheses of nucleotide and RNA.
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23
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Le Vay K, Song EY, Ghosh B, Tang TD, Mutschler H. Enhanced Ribozyme‐Catalyzed Recombination and Oligonucleotide Assembly in Peptide‐RNA Condensates. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202109267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Le Vay
- Biomimetic Systems Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry Am Klopferspitz 18 82152 Martinsried Germany
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology TU Dortmund University Otto-Hahn-Str. 4a 44227 Dortmund Germany
| | - Emilie Yeonwha Song
- Biomimetic Systems Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry Am Klopferspitz 18 82152 Martinsried Germany
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology TU Dortmund University Otto-Hahn-Str. 4a 44227 Dortmund Germany
| | - Basusree Ghosh
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics Pfotenhauerstraße 108 01307 Dresden Germany
| | - T.‐Y. Dora Tang
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics Pfotenhauerstraße 108 01307 Dresden Germany
| | - Hannes Mutschler
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology TU Dortmund University Otto-Hahn-Str. 4a 44227 Dortmund Germany
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24
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Zhao ZR, Wang X. A plausible prebiotic selection of ribose for RNA - formation, dynamic isolation, and nucleotide synthesis based on metal-doped-clays. Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chempr.2021.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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25
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Bernhardt HS, Tate WP. A New Perspective on the Maillard Reaction and the Origin of Life. J Mol Evol 2021; 89:594-597. [PMID: 34633476 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-021-10030-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The Maillard reaction, a spontaneous 'one pot' reaction between amino acids and reducing sugars that occurs at low reactant concentrations and low temperatures, is a good candidate for having played a role in the origin of life on the Earth. In view of the probability that RNA and DNA were preceded by an evolutionary forerunner with a more straightforward prebiotic synthesis, it is a testament to the prescience of Oró and colleagues that, in 1975, they drew attention to the Maillard reaction, in particular evidence that melanoidin polymers (the end-product of the reaction) contain '…heterocyclic nitrogen compounds similar to the nitrogenous bases' (Nissenbaum in J Mol Evol 6:253-270, 1975). Indeed, reports of the Maillard reaction product, 2-Acetyl-6-(Hydroxymethyl)-5,6-Dihydro-4H-Pyridinone (AHDP), with a structure reminiscent of the pyrimidine nucleobase uracil, suggest the Maillard reaction might have played a key role in the synthesis of components of a proto-RNA polymer, with AHDP and two structurally related products predicted to be similar to uracil in the latter's ability to form non-standard base pair interactions. It is possible that the primary function of these interactions was to allow molecules such as AHDP to separate out of the prebiotic chemical clutter. If this were the case, catalysis, and coding-made possible by the polymerization of proto-nucleoside monomers into linear sequence strings-would have been evolving properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harold S Bernhardt
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
| | - Warren P Tate
- Emeritus Professor, Department of Biochemistry, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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26
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Le Vay K, Song EY, Ghosh B, Tang TYD, Mutschler H. Enhanced Ribozyme-Catalyzed Recombination and Oligonucleotide Assembly in Peptide-RNA Condensates. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:26096-26104. [PMID: 34569680 PMCID: PMC9299051 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202109267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The ability of RNA to catalyze RNA ligation is critical to its central role in many prebiotic model scenarios, in particular the copying of information during self‐replication. Prebiotically plausible ribozymes formed from short oligonucleotides can catalyze reversible RNA cleavage and ligation reactions, but harsh conditions or unusual scenarios are often required to promote folding and drive the reaction equilibrium towards ligation. Here, we demonstrate that ribozyme activity is greatly enhanced by charge‐mediated phase separation with poly‐L‐lysine, which shifts the reaction equilibrium from cleavage in solution to ligation in peptide‐RNA coaggregates and coacervates. This compartmentalization enables robust isothermal RNA assembly over a broad range of conditions, which can be leveraged to assemble long and complex RNAs from short fragments under mild conditions in the absence of exogenous activation chemistry, bridging the gap between pools of short oligomers and functional RNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristian Le Vay
- Biomimetic Systems, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152, Martinsried, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, TU Dortmund University, Otto-Hahn-Str. 4a, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Emilie Yeonwha Song
- Biomimetic Systems, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, Am Klopferspitz 18, 82152, Martinsried, Germany.,Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, TU Dortmund University, Otto-Hahn-Str. 4a, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Basusree Ghosh
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - T-Y Dora Tang
- Max-Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstraße 108, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Hannes Mutschler
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, TU Dortmund University, Otto-Hahn-Str. 4a, 44227, Dortmund, Germany
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27
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Higgs PG. When Is a Reaction Network a Metabolism? Criteria for Simple Metabolisms That Support Growth and Division of Protocells. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11090966. [PMID: 34575115 PMCID: PMC8469938 DOI: 10.3390/life11090966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
With the aim of better understanding the nature of metabolism in the first cells and the relationship between the origin of life and the origin of metabolism, we propose three criteria that a chemical reaction system must satisfy in order to constitute a metabolism that would be capable of sustaining growth and division of a protocell. (1) Biomolecules produced by the reaction system must be maintained at high concentration inside the cell while they remain at low or zero concentration outside. (2) The total solute concentration inside the cell must be higher than outside, so there is a positive osmotic pressure that drives cell growth. (3) The metabolic rate (i.e., the rate of mass throughput) must be higher inside the cell than outside. We give examples of small-molecule reaction systems that satisfy these criteria, and others which do not, firstly considering fixed-volume compartments, and secondly, lipid vesicles that can grow and divide. If the criteria are satisfied, and if a supply of lipid is available outside the cell, then continued growth of membrane surface area occurs alongside the increase in volume of the cell. If the metabolism synthesizes more lipid inside the cell, then the membrane surface area can increase proportionately faster than the cell volume, in which case cell division is possible. The three criteria can be satisfied if the reaction system is bistable, because different concentrations can exist inside and out while the rate constants of all the reactions are the same. If the reaction system is monostable, the criteria can only be satisfied if there is a reason why the rate constants are different inside and out (for example, the decay rates of biomolecules are faster outside, or the formation rates of biomolecules are slower outside). If this difference between inside and outside does not exist, a monostable reaction system cannot sustain cell growth and division. We show that a reaction system for template-directed RNA polymerization can satisfy the requirements for a metabolism, even if the small-molecule reactions that make the single nucleotides do not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul G Higgs
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Origins Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4M1, Canada
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28
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Fialho DM, Karunakaran SC, Greeson KW, Martínez I, Schuster GB, Krishnamurthy R, Hud NV. Depsipeptide Nucleic Acids: Prebiotic Formation, Oligomerization, and Self-Assembly of a New Proto-Nucleic Acid Candidate. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:13525-13537. [PMID: 34398608 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c02287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism by which informational polymers first formed on the early earth is currently unknown. The RNA world hypothesis implies that RNA oligomers were produced prebiotically, before the emergence of enzymes, but the demonstration of such a process remains challenging. Alternatively, RNA may have been preceded by an earlier ancestral polymer, or proto-RNA, that had a greater propensity for self-assembly than RNA, with the eventual transition to functionally superior RNA being the result of chemical or biological evolution. We report a new class of nucleic acid analog, depsipeptide nucleic acid (DepsiPNA), which displays several properties that are attractive as a candidate for proto-RNA. The monomers of depsipeptide nucleic acids can form under plausibly prebiotic conditions. These monomers oligomerize spontaneously when dried from aqueous solutions to form nucleobase-functionalized depsipeptides. Once formed, these DepsiPNA oligomers are capable of complementary self-assembly and are resistant to hydrolysis in the assembled state. These results suggest that the initial formation of primitive, self-assembling, informational polymers on the early earth may have been relatively facile if the constraints of an RNA-first scenario are relaxed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David M Fialho
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Suneesh C Karunakaran
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Katherine W Greeson
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Isaac Martínez
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Gary B Schuster
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Ramanarayanan Krishnamurthy
- NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States.,Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Nicholas V Hud
- School of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Parker H. Petit Institute for Bioengineering and Bioscience, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States.,NSF-NASA Center for Chemical Evolution, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
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29
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'Whole Organism', Systems Biology, and Top-Down Criteria for Evaluating Scenarios for the Origin of Life. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11070690. [PMID: 34357062 PMCID: PMC8306273 DOI: 10.3390/life11070690] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 07/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
While most advances in the study of the origin of life on Earth (OoLoE) are piecemeal, tested against the laws of chemistry and physics, ultimately the goal is to develop an overall scenario for life's origin(s). However, the dimensionality of non-equilibrium chemical systems, from the range of possible boundary conditions and chemical interactions, renders the application of chemical and physical laws difficult. Here we outline a set of simple criteria for evaluating OoLoE scenarios. These include the need for containment, steady energy and material flows, and structured spatial heterogeneity from the outset. The Principle of Continuity, the fact that all life today was derived from first life, suggests favoring scenarios with fewer non-analog (not seen in life today) to analog (seen in life today) transitions in the inferred first biochemical pathways. Top-down data also indicate that a complex metabolism predated ribozymes and enzymes, and that full cellular autonomy and motility occurred post-LUCA. Using these criteria, we find the alkaline hydrothermal vent microchamber complex scenario with a late evolving exploitation of the natural occurring pH (or Na+ gradient) by ATP synthase the most compelling. However, there are as yet so many unknowns, we also advocate for the continued development of as many plausible scenarios as possible.
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30
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Szabla R, Zdrowowicz M, Spisz P, Green NJ, Stadlbauer P, Kruse H, Šponer J, Rak J. 2,6-diaminopurine promotes repair of DNA lesions under prebiotic conditions. Nat Commun 2021; 12:3018. [PMID: 34021158 PMCID: PMC8139960 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-23300-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
High-yielding and selective prebiotic syntheses of RNA and DNA nucleotides involve UV irradiation to promote the key reaction steps and eradicate biologically irrelevant isomers. While these syntheses were likely enabled by UV-rich prebiotic environment, UV-induced formation of photodamages in polymeric nucleic acids, such as cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers (CPDs), remains the key unresolved issue for the origins of RNA and DNA on Earth. Here, we demonstrate that substitution of adenine with 2,6-diaminopurine enables repair of CPDs with yields reaching 92%. This substantial self-repairing activity originates from excellent electron donating properties of 2,6-diaminopurine in nucleic acid strands. We also show that the deoxyribonucleosides of 2,6-diaminopurine and adenine can be formed under the same prebiotic conditions. Considering that 2,6-diaminopurine was previously shown to increase the rate of nonenzymatic RNA replication, this nucleobase could have played critical roles in the formation of functional and photostable RNA/DNA oligomers in UV-rich prebiotic environments. UV-induced photodamage that likely occurred during the prebiotic synthesis of DNA and RNA is still an untackled issue for their origin on early Earth. Here, the authors show that substitution of 2,6-diaminopurine for adenine enables repair of cyclobutane pyrimidine dimers with high yields, and demonstrate that both 2,6-diaminopurine and adenine nucleosides can be formed under the same prebiotic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafał Szabla
- EaStCHEM School of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK. .,Institute of Physics, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland.
| | | | - Paulina Spisz
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
| | | | - Petr Stadlbauer
- Institute of Biophysics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Holger Kruse
- Institute of Biophysics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiří Šponer
- Institute of Biophysics of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Janusz Rak
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Gdańsk, Gdańsk, Poland
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31
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Kim SC, O'Flaherty DK, Giurgiu C, Zhou L, Szostak JW. The Emergence of RNA from the Heterogeneous Products of Prebiotic Nucleotide Synthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:3267-3279. [PMID: 33636080 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c12955] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in prebiotic chemistry are beginning to outline plausible pathways for the synthesis of the canonical ribonucleotides and their assembly into oligoribonucleotides. However, these reaction pathways suggest that many noncanonical nucleotides are likely to have been generated alongside the standard ribonucleotides. Thus, the oligomerization of prebiotically synthesized nucleotides is likely to have led to a highly heterogeneous collection of oligonucleotides comprised of a wide range of types of nucleotides connected by a variety of backbone linkages. How then did relatively homogeneous RNA emerge from this primordial heterogeneity? Here we focus on nonenzymatic template-directed primer extension as a process that would have strongly enriched for homogeneous RNA over the course of multiple cycles of replication. We review the effects on copying the kinetics of nucleotides with altered nucleobase and sugar moieties, when they are present as activated monomers and when they are incorporated into primer and template oligonucleotides. We also discuss three variations in backbone connectivity, all of which are nonheritable and regenerate native RNA upon being copied. The kinetic superiority of RNA synthesis suggests that nonenzymatic copying served as a chemical selection mechanism that allowed relatively homogeneous RNA to emerge from a complex mixture of prebiotically synthesized nucleotides and oligonucleotides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seohyun Chris Kim
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular Biology, and Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Derek K O'Flaherty
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular Biology, and Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Constantin Giurgiu
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular Biology, and Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States
| | - Lijun Zhou
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular Biology, and Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Jack W Szostak
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Molecular Biology, and Center for Computational and Integrative Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114, United States.,Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138, United States.,Department of Genetics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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32
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Tran QP, Adam ZR, Fahrenbach AC. Prebiotic Reaction Networks in Water. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:E352. [PMID: 33339192 PMCID: PMC7765580 DOI: 10.3390/life10120352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2020] [Revised: 12/05/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
A prevailing strategy in origins of life studies is to explore how chemistry constrained by hypothetical prebiotic conditions could have led to molecules and system level processes proposed to be important for life's beginnings. This strategy has yielded model prebiotic reaction networks that elucidate pathways by which relevant compounds can be generated, in some cases, autocatalytically. These prebiotic reaction networks provide a rich platform for further understanding and development of emergent "life-like" behaviours. In this review, recent advances in experimental and analytical procedures associated with classical prebiotic reaction networks, like formose and Miller-Urey, as well as more recent ones are highlighted. Instead of polymeric networks, i.e., those based on nucleic acids or peptides, the focus is on small molecules. The future of prebiotic chemistry lies in better understanding the genuine complexity that can result from reaction networks and the construction of a centralised database of reactions useful for predicting potential network evolution is emphasised.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zachary R. Adam
- Department of Planetary Sciences, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA;
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33
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Ding YN, Shi WY, Liu C, Zheng N, Li M, An Y, Zhang Z, Wang CT, Zhang BS, Liang YM. Palladium-Catalyzed ortho-C-H Glycosylation/ ipso-Alkenylation of Aryl Iodides. J Org Chem 2020; 85:11280-11296. [PMID: 32786633 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.0c01392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
This report describes the first example of palladium-catalyzed ortho-C-H glycosylation/ipso-alkenylation of aryl iodides, and the easily accessible glycosyl chlorides are used as a glycosylation reagent. The reaction is compatible with the functional groups of the substrates, and a series of C-aryl glycosides have been synthesized in good to excellent yield and with excellent diastereoselectivity. It is found that a cheap 5-norbornene-2-carbonitrile as a transient mediator can effectively promote this reaction. In addition, ipso-arylation and cyanation were also realized by the strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ya-Nan Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Wei-Yu Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Ce Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Nian Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Ming Li
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Yang An
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Zhe Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Cui-Tian Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Bo-Sheng Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Yong-Min Liang
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
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34
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Ponce CP, Kloprogge JT. Urea-Assisted Synthesis and Characterization of Saponite with Different Octahedral (Mg, Zn, Ni, Co) and Tetrahedral Metals (Al, Ga, B), a Review. Life (Basel) 2020; 10:life10090168. [PMID: 32872173 PMCID: PMC7555627 DOI: 10.3390/life10090168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Clay minerals surfaces potentially play a role in prebiotic synthesis through adsorption of organic monomers that give rise to highly concentrated systems; facilitate condensation and polymerization reactions, protection of early biomolecules from hydrolysis and photolysis, and surface-templating for specific adsorption and synthesis of organic molecules. This review presents processes of clay formation using saponite as a model clay mineral, since it has been shown to catalyze organic reactions, is easy to synthesize in large and pure form, and has tunable properties. In particular, a method involving urea is presented as a reasonable analog of natural processes. The method involves a two-step process: (1) formation of the precursor aluminosilicate gel and (2) hydrolysis of a divalent metal (Mg, Ni, Co, and Zn) by the slow release of ammonia from urea decomposition. The aluminosilicate gels in the first step forms a 4-fold-coordinated Al3+ similar to what is found in nature such as in volcanic glass. The use of urea, a compound figuring in many prebiotic model reactions, circumvents the formation of undesirable brucite, Mg(OH)2, in the final product, by slowly releasing ammonia thereby controlling the hydrolysis of magnesium. In addition, the substitution of B and Ga for Si and Al in saponite is also described. The saponite products from this urea-assisted synthesis were tested as catalysts for several organic reactions, including Friedel–Crafts alkylation, cracking, and isomerization reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concepcion P. Ponce
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines, Miag-ao, Iloilo 5023, Philippines;
| | - J. Theo Kloprogge
- Department of Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of the Philippines, Miag-ao, Iloilo 5023, Philippines;
- School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland 4072, Australia
- Correspondence:
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