Synthesis of l-Hexoses

Access to Reverse Glycosyl Azides and Rare Sugar-Based Glycosyl Azides via Radical Decarboxylative Azidation: Divergent Synthesis of 4'-C-Azidonucleosides as Potential Antiviral Agents

The radical decarboxylative azidation of structurally diverse uronic acids has been established as an efficient approach to reverse glycosyl azides and rare sugar-derived glycosyl azides under the action of Ag2CO3, 3-pyridinesulfonyl azide, and K2S2O8. The power of this method has been highlighted by the divergent synthesis of 4'-C-azidonucleosides using Vorbrüggen glycosylation of nucleobases with 4-C-azidofuranosyl acetates. The antiviral assessment of the resulting nucleosides revealed one compound as a potential inhibitor of covalently closed circular DNA.

Expeditious Synthesis of Gwanakoside A and the Chloronaphthol Glycoside Congeners

The synthesis of gwanakoside A, a chlorinated naphthol bis-glycoside, and its analogues was achieved through stepwise chlorination and donor-equivalent controlled regioselective phenol glycosylation with glycosyl N-phenyltrifluoroacetimidates as donors. Gwanakoside A displayed considerable inhibitory effects against various cancer cells and Staphylococcus aureus strains.

Multi-site programmable functionalization of alkenes via controllable alkene isomerization

Direct and selective functionalization of hydrocarbon chains is a fundamental problem in synthetic chemistry. Conventional functionalization of C=C double bonds and C(sp³)-H bonds provides some solutions, but site diversity remains an issue. The merging of alkene isomerization with (oxidative) functionalization provides an ideal method for remote functionalization, which would provide more opportunities for site diversity. However, the reported functionalized sites are still limited and focus on a specific terminal position and internal site; new site-selective functionalization, including multi-functionalization, remains a largely unmet challenge. Here we describe a palladium-catalysed aerobic oxidative method for the multi-site programmable functionalization, involving the C=C double bond and multiple C(sp³)-H bonds, of terminal olefins via a strategy that controls the reaction sequence between alkene isomerization and oxidative functionalization. Specifically, 1-acetoxylation (anti-Markovnikov), 2-acetoxylation, 1,2-diacetoxylation and 1,2,3-triacetoxylation have been realized, accompanied by controllable remote alkenylation. This method enables available terminal olefins from petrochemical feedstocks to be readily converted into unsaturated alcohols and polyalcohols and particularly into different monosaccharides and C-glycosides.

Facile Preparation of L-Iduronic Acid and α-L-Iduronidation Using Methyl 1,2,3,4-Tetra-O-acetyl-α-L-iduronate as Glycosyl Donor

Methyl 1,2,3,4-tetra-O-acetyl-α-L-iduronate was prepared from methyl 1,2,3,4-tetra-O-β-D-glucuronate in two steps: Ferrier's photobromination and subsequent radical reduction with tris(trimethylsilyl)silane. The obtained methyl 1,2,3,4-tetra-O-acetyl-α-L-iduronate was a good glycosyl donor for the L-iduronidation when bis(trifluoromethanesulfonic)imide was employed as the activator. The reaction afforded the α-isomer as the major product, the configuration of which is the same as that of the L-iduronic acid unit in heparin and heparan sulfate.

Protecting group enabled stereocontrolled approach for rare-sugars talose/gulose via dual-ruthenium catalysis

We herein report a convenient and highly stereocontrolled approach for rare and vital ᴅ-talo and ᴅ-gulo sugars directly from economical ᴅ-galactal through dual ruthenium-catalysis. The stereo-divergent strategy involves Ru(III)Cl₃-catalyzed Ferrier glycosylation of ᴅ-galactal to give 2,3-unsaturated ᴅ-galactopyranoside, further selective functionalization of C-4 and C-6 position with diverse protecting groups and dihydroxylation with Ru(VIII)O₄ generated in situ providing access to talo/gulo isomers. The α-anomeric stereoselectivity and syn-diastereoselectivity in glycosylation-dihydroxylation steps have been predominantly achieved by judicious selection of stereoelectronically diverse protecting groups. The synthetic utility of the dual-ruthenium catalysis was demonstrated for efficiently assembling the ᴅ-talose and/or ᴅ-gulose sugars in natural products and bioactive scaffolds.

Synthesis of the Three Most Expensive l-Hexose Thioglycosides from d-Glucose

The biologically important l-hexoses, which are less widespread than d-hexoses, cannot be obtained from natural sources or can only be extracted very costly. Due to the complexity of their synthesis, their commercially available derivatives (which are sold mostly in free form) are also very expensive, which is further exacerbated by the current rapid rise in prices. In the present work, starting from the cheapest d-hexose, d-glucose, using inexpensive and readily available chemicals, a reaction pathway was developed in which the three most expensive l-hexoses (l-idose, l-altrose, and l-talose) were successfully prepared in orthogonally protected thioglycoside form, ready for glycosylation. The l-ido and l-talo derivatives were synthesized by C-5 epimerization of the corresponding 5,6-unsaturated thioglycosides. From the l-ido derivatives, the orthogonally protected thioglycosides of l-altrose were then prepared by C-4 epimerization. Different approaches to the preparation of the key intermediates, 5,6-unsaturated thioglycoside derivatives, were systematically investigated in the presence of various protecting groups (ether and ester) and using commercially available reagents.

A concise synthesis of l-gulose and its C-6 derivatives

A convenient route for the preparation of l-gulose and its C-6 derivatives starting from commercially available 2,3:5,6-diisopropylidene-d-mannofuranose via C-5 epimerization as the key step was developed. 1-O-Benzylation followed by regioselective hydrolysis of the 5,6-isopropylidene group furnished benzyl 2,3-isopropylidene-α-d-mannofuranoside, which was subjected upon regioselective one-pot 6-O-benzoylation and 5-O-mesylation, providing the corresponding 5-OMs-6-OBz derivative in excellent selectivity. Treatment of this mesylate compound with potassium t-butoxide to remove the benzoyl group followed by intramolecular S_N2 inversion led to benzyl 5,6-anhydro-2,3-isopropylidene-β-l-gulofuranoside, which could undergo not only nucleophilic substitutions to open the epoxide ring to give various C-6 derivatives, but also acidic hydrolysis to yield 1,6-anhydro-β-l-gulopyranose for further transformation into l-gulopyranosyl pentaacetate.

Synthesis of Four Orthogonally Protected Rare l-Hexose Thioglycosides from d-Mannose by C-5 and C-4 Epimerization

l-Hexoses are important components of biologically relevant compounds and precursors of some therapeuticals. However, they typically cannot be obtained from natural sources and due to the complexity of their synthesis, their commercially available derivatives are also very expensive. Starting from one of the cheapest d-hexoses, d-mannose, using inexpensive and readily available chemicals, we developed a reaction pathway to obtain two orthogonally protected l-hexose thioglycoside derivatives, l-gulose and l-galactose, through the corresponding 5,6-unsaturated thioglycosides by C-5 epimerization. From these derivatives, the orthogonally protected thioglycosides of further two l-hexoses (l-allose and l-glucose) were synthesized by C-4 epimerization. The preparation of the key intermediates, the 5,6-unsaturated derivatives, was systematically studied using various protecting groups. By the method developed, we are able to produce highly functionalized l-gulose derivatives in 9 steps (total yields: 21–23%) and l-galactose derivatives in 12 steps (total yields: 6–8%) starting from d-mannose.

General Strategy for the Synthesis of Rare Sugars via Ru(II)-Catalyzed and Boron-Mediated Selective Epimerization of 1,2-trans-Diols to 1,2-cis-Diols

Human glycans are primarily composed of nine common sugar building blocks. On the other hand, several hundred monosaccharides have been discovered in bacteria and most of them are not readily available. The ability to access these rare sugars and the corresponding glycoconjugates can facilitate the studies of various fundamentally important biological processes in bacteria, including interactions between microbiota and the human host. Many rare sugars also exist in a variety of natural products and pharmaceutical reagents with significant biological activities. Although several methods have been developed for the synthesis of rare monosaccharides, most of them involve lengthy steps. Herein, we report an efficient and general strategy that can provide access to rare sugars from commercially available common monosaccharides via a one-step Ru(II)-catalyzed and boron-mediated selective epimerization of 1,2-trans-diols to 1,2-cis-diols. The formation of boronate esters drives the equilibrium toward 1,2-cis-diol products, which can be immediately used for further selective functionalization and glycosylation. The utility of this strategy was demonstrated by the efficient construction of glycoside skeletons in natural products or bioactive compounds.

GDP-Mannose 3,5-Epimerase: A View on Structure, Mechanism, and Industrial Potential

GDP-mannose 3,5-epimerase (GM35E, GME) belongs to the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase (SDR) protein superfamily and catalyses the conversion of GDP-d-mannose towards GDP-l-galactose. Although the overall reaction seems relatively simple (a double epimerization), the enzyme needs to orchestrate a complex set of chemical reactions, with no less than 6 catalysis steps (oxidation, 2x deprotonation, 2x protonation and reduction), to perform the double epimerization of GDP-mannose to GDP-l-galactose. The enzyme is involved in the biosynthesis of vitamin C in plants and lipopolysaccharide synthesis in bacteria. In this review, we provide a clear overview of these interesting epimerases, including the latest findings such as the recently characterized bacterial and thermostable GM35E representative and its mechanism revision but also focus on their industrial potential in rare sugar synthesis and glycorandomization.

De Novo Synthesis of Orthogonally-Protected C2-Fluoro Digitoxoses and Cymaroses: Development and Application for the Synthesis of Fluorinated Digoxin

Inspired by Roush's pioneering work on rare sugars, we have developed a scalable, stereoselective, de novo synthesis of orthogonally protected C2-fluoro digitoxose and cymarose, utilizing Sharpless kinetic resolution and organocatalytic fluorination as key steps. The utility of this strategy is demonstrated by the synthesis of a fluorinated analogue of digoxin, which indicates the fluorine on the sugar ring may have a significant impact on biological activity.

Silylated Sugars – Synthesis and Properties

Silicon has been used in carbohydrate chemistry for half a century, but mostly as a protective group for sugar alcohols. Recently, the use of silicon has expanded to functionalization via C–H activation, conformational arming of glycosyl donors, and conformational alteration of carbohydrates. Silicon has proven useful as more than a protective group and during the last one and a half decades we have demonstrated how it influences both the reactivity of glycosyl donors and stereochemical outcome of glycosylations. Silicon can also be attached directly to the sugar C-backbone, which has even more pronounced effects on the chemistry and properties of the molecules. In this Account, we will give a tour through our work involving silicon and carbohydrates.

1 Introduction

2 Conformational Arming of Glycosyl Donors with Silyl Groups

3 Silyl Protective Groups for Tethering Glycosyl Donors

4. Si–C Glycosides via C–H Activation

4.1 C–H Activation and Oxidation of Methyl 6-Deoxy-l-glycosides

4.2 Synthesis of All Eight 6-Deoxy-l-sugars

4.3 Synthesis of All Eight l-Sugars by C–H Activation

4.4 Modification of the Oxasilolane Ring

5 C–Si in Glycosyl Donors – Activating or Not?

6 Si–C-Substituted Pyranosides

7 Perspective

Enantioselective Reductive Oligomerization of Carbon Dioxide into l-Erythrulose via a Chemoenzymatic Catalysis

A cell-free enantioselective transformation of the carbon atom of CO₂ has never been reported. In the urgent context of transforming CO₂ into products of high value, the enantiocontrolled synthesis of chiral compounds from CO₂ would be highly desirable. Using an original hybrid chemoenzymatic catalytic process, we report herein the reductive oligomerization of CO₂ into C₃ (dihydroxyacetone, DHA) and C₄ (l-erythrulose) carbohydrates, with perfect enantioselectivity of the latter chiral product. This was achieved with the key intermediacy of formaldehyde. CO₂ is first reduced selectively by 4e^- by an iron-catalyzed hydroboration reaction, leading to the isolation and complete characterization of a new bis(boryl)acetal compound derived from dimesitylborane. In an aqueous buffer solution at 30 °C, this compound readily releases formaldehyde, which is then involved in selective enzymatic transformations, giving rise either (i) to DHA using a formolase (FLS) catalysis or (ii) to l-erythrulose with a cascade reaction combining FLS and d-fructose-6-phosphate aldolase (FSA) A129S variant. Finally, the nature of the synthesized products is noteworthy, since carbohydrates are of high interest for the chemical and pharmaceutical industries. The present results prove that the cell-free de novo synthesis of carbohydrates from CO₂ as a sustainable carbon source is a possible alternative pathway in addition to the intensely studied biomass extraction and de novo syntheses from fossil resources.

Synthesis of Rare 6-Deoxy-d-/l-Heptopyranosyl Fluorides: Assembly of a Hexasaccharide Corresponding to Campylobacter jejuni Strain CG8486 Capsular Polysaccharide

Campylobacter jejuni is the leading cause of human diarrheal diseases and has been designated as one of highly resistant pathogens by the World Health Organization. The C. jejuni capsular polysaccharides feature broad existence of uncommon 6dHepp residues and have proven to be potential antigens to develop innovative antibacterial glycoconjugation vaccines. To address the lack of synthetic methods for rare 6dHepp architectures of importance, we herein describe a novel and efficient approach for the preparation of uncommon d-/l-6dHepp fluorides that have power as glycosylating agents. The synthesis is achieved by a C1-to-C5 switch strategy relying on radical decarboxylative fluorination of uronic acids arising from readily available allyl d-C-glycosides. To further showcase the application of this protocol, a structurally unique hexasaccharide composed of →3)-β-d-6didoHepp-(1→4)-β-d-GlcpNAc-(1→ units, corresponding to the capsular polysaccharide of C. jejuni strain CG8486 has been assembled for the first time. The assembly is characterized by highly efficient construction of the synthetically challenging β-(1,2-cis)-d-ido-heptopyranoside by inversion of the C2 configuration of β-(1,2-trans)-d-gulo-heptopyranoside, which is conveniently obtained by anchimerically assisted stereoselective glycosylation of the orthogonally protected 6dgulHepp fluoride. Ready accessibility of 6dHepp fluorides and the resulting glycans could serve as a rational starting point for the further development of synthetic vaccines fighting Campylobacter infection.

Synthesis of L-hexoses: an Update

Over the years, carbohydrates have increasingly become an important class of compounds contributing significantly to the target specific drug discovery and vaccine development. Several oligosaccharides contain L-hexoses that are biologically relevant as therapeutic and diagnostic tools. Since, L-hexoses and deoxy L-hexoses are not readily available in large amount and pure form, attention is drawn towards development of cost effective and high yielding synthetic routes for their procurement. In this review we give an update on the recent developments in strategies for synthesis of L-hexoses and deoxy L-hexoses.

Selective and Scalable Synthesis of Sugar Alcohols by Homogeneous Asymmetric Hydrogenation of Unprotected Ketoses

Sugar alcohols are of great importance for the food industry and are promising building blocks for bio-based polymers. Industrially, they are produced by heterogeneous hydrogenation of sugars with H₂ , usually with none to low stereoselectivities. Now, we present a homogeneous system based on commercially available components, which not only increases the overall yield, but also allows a wide range of unprotected ketoses to be diastereoselectively hydrogenated. Furthermore, the system is reliable on a multi-gram scale allowing sugar alcohols to be isolated in large quantities at high atom economy.

(C6F5)3B·(HF)n-catalyzed glycosylation of disarmed glycosyl fluorides and reverse glycosyl fluorides

(C₆F₅)₃B·(HF)_n-catalyzed glycosylation of disarmed glycosyl fluorides and reverse glycosyl fluorides with structurally diverse nucleophiles has been achieved.

Synthesis of Reverse Glycosyl Fluorides and Rare Glycosyl Fluorides Enabled by Radical Decarboxylative Fluorination of Uronic Acids

An efficient protocol for synthesizing reverse glycosyl fluorides is described, relying on silver-promoted decarboxylative fluorination of structurally diverse pentofuran- and hexopyranuronic acids under the mild reaction conditions. The potential applications of the reaction are further demonstrated by converting readily available d-uronic acid derivatives into uncommon d-/l-glycosyl fluorides through a C1-to-C5 switch strategy. The reaction mechanism is corroborated by 5-exo-trig radical cyclization of allyl α-d-C-glucopyranuronic acid triggered by decarboxylative fluorination.

GDP-altrose as novel product of GDP-mannose 3,5-epimerase: Revisiting its reaction mechanism

GDP-mannose 3,5-epimerase (GM35E) catalyzes the double epimerization of GDP-mannose to yield GDP-l-galactose. GDP-l-gulose (C5-epimer) has previously been detected as a byproduct of this reaction, indicating that C3,5-epimerization occurs through an initial epimerization at C5. Given these products, GM35E constitutes a valuable bridge between d- and l-hexoses. In order to fully exploit this potential, the enzyme might be subjected to specificity engineering for which profound mechanistic insights are beneficial. Accordingly, this study further elucidated GM35E's reaction mechanism. For the first time, the production of the C3-epimer GDP-altrose was demonstrated, resulting in an adjustment of the acknowledged reaction mechanism. As GM35E converts GDP-mannose to GDP-l-gulose, GDP-altrose and GDP-l-galactose in a 72:4:4:20 ratio, this indicates that the enzyme does not discriminate between the C3 and C5 position as initial epimerization site. This was also confirmed by a structural investigation. Based on a mutational analysis of the active site, residues S115 and R281 were attributed a stabilizing function, which is believed to support the reactivation process of the catalytic residues. This paper eventually reflected on some engineering strategies that aim to change the enzyme towards a single specificity.

Microbial and enzymatic strategies for the production of L-ribose

L-Ribose is a non-naturally occurring pentose that recently has become known for its potential application in the pharmaceutical industry, as it is an ideal starting material for use in synthesizing L-nucleosides analogues, an important class of antiviral drugs. In the past few decades, the synthesis of L-ribose has been mainly undertaken through the chemical route. However, chemical synthesis of L-ribose is difficult to achieve on an industrial scale. Therefore, the biotechnological production of L-ribose has gained considerable attention, as it exhibits many merits over the chemical approaches. The present review focuses on various biotechnological strategies for the production of L-ribose through microbial biotransformation and enzymatic catalysis, and in particular on an analysis and comparison of the synthetic methods and different enzymes. The physiological functions and applications of L-ribose are also elucidated. In addition, different sugar isomerases involved in the production of L-ribose from a number of sources are discussed in detail with regard to their biochemical properties. Furthermore, analysis of the separation issues of L-ribose from the reaction solution and different purification methods is presented.Key points • l -Arabinose, l -ribulose and ribitol can be used to produce l -ribose by enzymes. • Five enzymes are systematically introduced for production of l -ribose. • Microbial transformation and enzymatic methods are promising for yielding l -ribose.

Siderophores from the Entomopathogenic Fungus Beauveria bassiana

We report NMR- and MS-based structural characterizations of siderophores and related compounds from Beauveria bassiana (Balsamo-Crivelli) Vuillemin, including ten new chemical entities (2-4, 6-9, 11-12, and 15) and five known compounds, (1, 5, 10, 13, and 14). The siderophore mixture from ARSEF strain #2680 included two compounds in which N⁵-mevalonyl-N⁵-hydroxyornithine replaces both (2) or one (3) of the N⁵-anhydromevalonyl-N⁵-hydroxyornithine units of dimerumic acid (1). Mevalonolactone (14) was present as a degradation product of 2 and 3. ARSEF #2860 also produced compounds that have mannopyranose (5, 6) or 4-O-methyl-mannopyranose units (4, 7), two compounds (8, 9) that can be rationalized as 4-O-methyl-mannopyranosyl analogues of the esterifying acid moieties of metachelins A and B, respectively, and two probable decomposition products of 1, a nitro compound (11) and a formate (12). Beauverichelin A (15), a coprogen-type siderophore that represents the di-4-O-methyl-mannopyranosyl analogue of metachelin A, was detected in crude extracts of ARSEF #2860, but only in trace amounts. ARSEF strains #252 and #1955 yielded beauverichelin A in quantities that were sufficient for NMR analysis. Only the di- (1-7) and trihydroxamate (15) siderophores showed iron-binding activity in the CAS assay and, when ferrated, showed strong ESIMS signals consistent with 1:1 ligand/iron complexes.

Biosensor-based enzyme engineering approach applied to psicose biosynthesis

Bioproduction of chemical compounds is of great interest for modern industries, as it reduces their production costs and ecological impact. With the use of synthetic biology, metabolic engineering and enzyme engineering tools, the yield of production can be improved to reach mass production and cost-effectiveness expectations. In this study, we explore the bioproduction of D-psicose, also known as D-allulose, a rare non-toxic sugar and a sweetener present in nature in low amounts. D-psicose has interesting properties and seemingly the ability to fight against obesity and type 2 diabetes. We developed a biosensor-based enzyme screening approach as a tool for enzyme selection that we benchmarked with the Clostridium cellulolyticum D-psicose 3-epimerase for the production of D-psicose from D-fructose. For this purpose, we constructed and characterized seven psicose responsive biosensors based on previously uncharacterized transcription factors and either their predicted promoters or an engineered promoter. In order to standardize our system, we created the Universal Biosensor Chassis, a construct with a highly modular architecture that allows rapid engineering of any transcription factor-based biosensor. Among the seven biosensors, we chose the one displaying the most linear behavior and the highest increase in fluorescence fold change. Next, we generated a library of D-psicose 3-epimerase mutants by error-prone PCR and screened it using the biosensor to select gain of function enzyme mutants, thus demonstrating the framework's efficiency.

From d- to l-Monosaccharide Derivatives via Photodecarboxylation-Alkylation

Photodecarboxylation-alkylation of conformationally locked monosaccharides leads to inversion of stereochemistry at C5. This allows the synthesis of l-sugars from their readily available d-counterparts. Via this strategy, methyl l-guloside was synthesized from methyl d-mannoside in 21% yield over six steps.

Characterization of the First Bacterial and Thermostable GDP-Mannose 3,5-Epimerase

GDP-mannose 3,5-epimerase (GM35E) catalyzes the conversion of GDP-mannose towards GDP-l-galactose and GDP-l-gulose. Although this reaction represents one of the few enzymatic routes towards the production of l-sugars and derivatives, it has not yet been exploited for that purpose. One of the reasons is that so far only GM35Es from plants have been characterized, yielding biocatalysts that are relatively unstable and difficult to express heterologously. Through the mining of sequence databases, we succeeded in identifying a promising bacterial homologue. The gene from the thermophilic organism Methylacidiphilum fumariolicum was codon optimized for expression in Escherichia coli, resulting in the production of 40 mg/L of recombinant protein. The enzyme was found to act as a self-sufficient GM35E, performing three chemical reactions in the same active site. Furthermore, the biocatalyst was highly stable at temperatures up to 55 °C, making it well suited for the synthesis of new carbohydrate products with application in the pharma industry.

Towards Improved Biorefinery Technologies: 5-Methylfurfural as a Versatile C6 Platform for Biofuels Development

Low chemical stability and high oxygen content limit utilization of the bio-based platform chemical 5-(hydroxymethyl)furfural (HMF) in biofuels development. In this work, Lewis-acid-catalyzed conversion of renewable 6-deoxy sugars leading to formation of more stable 5-methylfurfural (MF) is carried out with high selectivity. Besides its higher stability, MF is a deoxygenated analogue of HMF with increased C/O ratio. A highly selective synthesis of the innovative liquid biofuel 2,5-dimethylfuran starting from MF under mild conditions is described. The superior synthetic utility of MF against HMF in benzoin and aldol condensation reactions leading to long-chain alkane precursors is demonstrated.

Toward Generalization of Iterative Small Molecule Synthesis

Small molecules have extensive untapped potential to benefit society, but access to this potential is too often restricted by limitations inherent to the customized approach currently used to synthesize this class of chemical matter. In contrast, the "building block approach", i.e., generalized iterative assembly of interchangeable parts, has now proven to be a highly efficient and flexible way to construct things ranging all the way from skyscrapers to macromolecules to artificial intelligence algorithms. The structural redundancy found in many small molecules suggests that they possess a similar capacity for generalized building block-based construction. It is also encouraging that many customized iterative synthesis methods have been developed that improve access to specific classes of small molecules. There has also been substantial recent progress toward the iterative assembly of many different types of small molecules, including complex natural products, pharmaceuticals, biological probes, and materials, using common building blocks and coupling chemistry. Collectively, these advances suggest that a generalized building block approach for small molecule synthesis may be within reach.

What regulates the catalytic activities in AGE catalysis? An answer from quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics simulations

The AGE superfamily (AGEs) is made up of kinds of isomerase which are very important both physiologically and industrially. One of the most intriguing aspects of AGEs has to do with the mechanism that regulates their activities in single conserved active pocket. In order to clarify the relationship among single conserved active pocket and two activities in AGEs, results for the epimerization activity catalyzed by RaCE and the isomerization activity catalyzed by SeYihS were obtained by using QM/MM umbrella sampling simulations and 2D-FES calculations. Our results show that both of them have similar enzyme-substrate combination mode for inner pyranose ring in single conserved active pocket even though they have different substrate specificity. This means that the pathways of ring opening catalyzed by them are similar. However, one non-conserved residue (Leu183 in RaCE, Met175 in SeYihS) in the active site, which has different steric hindrance, causes a small but effective change in the direction of ring opening in stage 1. And then this change will induce a fundamentally different catalytic activity for RaCE and SeYihS in stage 2. Our results give a novel viewpoint about the regulatory mechanism between CE and YihS in AGEs, and may be helpful for further experiments of rational enzyme design based on the (α/α)₆-barrel basic scaffold.

Synthesis of l-Pyranosides by Hydroboration of Hex-5-enopyranosides Revisited

Extensive study of the diastereoselective synthesis of l-pyranosides utilizing hydroboration of substituted exo-glucals (5-enopyranosides) obtained from d-sugars is presented. On the basis of this study we present the empirical rules describing the reaction stereoselectivity and the correlation between the yield of the l-ido product and the size of protecting groups used. Application of these guidelines revealed that the hydroboration of methyl 2,3-O-methyl-6-deoxy-α-d-xylo-hex-5-enopyranoside resulted in exclusive formation of l-ido product with high yield. This method can be successfully applied to the synthesis of l-iduronic acid being an essential component of anticoagulant drugs with diastereoselectivity superior to previously published protocols.

Triacetonide of Glucoheptonic Acid in the Scalable Syntheses of d-Gulose, 6-Deoxy-d-gulose, l-Glucose, 6-Deoxy-l-glucose, and Related Sugars

Ease of separation of petrol-soluble acetonides derived from the triacetonide of methyl glucoheptonate allows scalable syntheses of rare sugars containing the l-gluco or d-gulo structural motif with any oxidation level at the C6 or C1 position of the hexose, usually without chromatography: meso-d-glycero-d-guloheptitol available in two steps is an ideal entry point for the study of the biotechnological production of heptoses.

Advances in the enzymatic production of L-hexoses

Rare sugars have recently drawn attention because of their potential applications and huge market demands in the food and pharmaceutical industries. All L-hexoses are considered rare sugars, as they rarely occur in nature and are thus very expensive. L-Hexoses are important components of biologically relevant compounds as well as being used as precursors for certain pharmaceutical drugs and thus play an important role in the pharmaceutical industry. Many general strategies have been established for the synthesis of L-hexoses; however, the only one used in the biotechnology industry is the Izumoring strategy. In hexose Izumoring, four entrances link the D- to L-enantiomers, ketose 3-epimerases catalyze the C-3 epimerization of L-ketohexoses, and aldose isomerases catalyze the specific bioconversion of L-ketohexoses and the corresponding L-aldohexoses. In this article, recent studies on the enzymatic production of various L-hexoses are reviewed based on the Izumoring strategy.