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Zhang Q, Wang L, Wu Q. Occurrence and combined exposure of phthalate esters in urban soil, surface dust, atmospheric dustfall, and commercial food in the semi-arid industrial city of Lanzhou, Northwest China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2024; 354:124170. [PMID: 38759748 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2024.124170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Revised: 05/13/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/19/2024]
Abstract
A total of 138 samples including urban soil, surface dust, atmospheric dustfall, and commercial food were collected from the semi-arid industrial city of Lanzhou in Northwest China, and 22 phthalate esters (PAEs) were analyzed in these samples by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry for the pollution characteristics, potential sources, and combined exposure risks of PAEs. The results showed that the total concentration of 22 PAEs (Ʃ22PAEs) presented surface dust (4.94 × 104 ng/g) ≫ dustfall (1.56 × 104 ng/g) ≫ food (2.14 × 103 ng/g) ≫ urban soil (533 ng/g). Di-n-butyl phthalate (DNBP), di-isobutyl phthalate, di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di-isononyl phthalate/di-isodecyl phthalate were predominant in the environmental media and commercial food, being controlled by priority (52.1%-65.5%) and non-priority (62.1%) PAEs, respectively. Elevated Ʃ22PAEs in the urban soil and surface dust was found in the west, middle, and east of Lanzhou. Principal component analysis indicated that PAEs the urban soil and surface dust were related with the emissions of products containing PAEs, atmosphere depositions, and traffic and industrial emissions. PAEs in the foods were associated with the growth and processing environment. The health risk assessment of United States Environmental Protection Agency based on the Chinese population exposure parameters indicated that the total exposure dose of 22 PAEs was from 0.111 to 0.226 mg/kg/day, which were above the reference dose (0.02 mg/kg/day) and tolerable daily intake (TDI, 0.05 mg/kg/day) for DEHP (0.0333-0.0631 mg/kg/day), and TDI (0.01 mg/kg/day) for DNBP (0.0213-0.0405 mg/kg/day), implying that the exposure of PAEs via multi-media should not be ignored; the total non-carcinogenic risk of six priority PAEs was below 1 for the three environmental media (1.21 × 10-5-2.90 × 10-3), while close to 1 for food (4.74 × 10-1-8.76 × 10-1), suggesting a potential non-carcinogenic risk of human exposure to PAEs in food; the total carcinogenic risk of BBP and DEHP was below 1 × 10-6 for the three environmental media (9.13 × 10-10-5.72 × 10-7), while above 1 × 10-4 for DEHP in food (1.02 × 10-4), suggesting a significantly carcinogenic risk of human exposure to DEHP in food. The current research results can provide certain supports for pollution and risk prevention of PAEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, China
| | - Lijun Wang
- School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, China.
| | - Qianlan Wu
- School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, 710119, China
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2
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Li Y, Zhang S, Guo Z, Wang L, Qiao L, Chen Y, Fan G, Sun C, Sun Y, Liu Y, Deng Q. An in-situ versatile screening method for identifying SVOC sources in indoor environments. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2024; 189:108794. [PMID: 38833876 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2024.108794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2024] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Indoor semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) pose a substantial threat to human health. However, identifying the sources of these emissions has been challenging owing to the scarcity of convenient and practical on-site methodologies. Herein, a novel method for source screening was proposed using aluminum silicate sampling strips to adsorb SVOCs from the surface air of indoor materials. The adsorbed SVOC levels indicate the emission intensity of these materials into indoor environments. Additionally, compact sampling strips can be readily fixed to any vertical surface using a static sticker, facilitating the characterization of various materials in practical settings. Laboratory-simulated experiments demonstrated the capability of the proposed method to differentiate between source and non-source materials within a 10-cm distance in the same space. In practical scenarios, the primary emission sources identified via this method exhibited a consistent correlation with the contents of the corresponding materials obtained from the traditional solvent-extraction method. As the adsorbed SVOCs were directly transferred to a GC-MS through thermal desorption instead of the solvent-extraction procedure, the proposed method demonstrated several-fold improvements in analytical sensitivity and efficiency. Using this versatile screening technique, some emerging and important SVOC species were identified within specific indoor materials. Eliminating these sources has been demonstrated as an effective approach to mitigate SVOC pollution. Overall, the proposed method offers a powerful tool for managing indoor pollutants and safeguarding human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yatai Li
- College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China.
| | - Shihao Zhang
- College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Zichen Guo
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilation and Air Conditioning, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Lixin Wang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Heating, Gas Supply, Ventilation and Air Conditioning, Beijing University of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Beijing 100044, China
| | - Lin Qiao
- College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Yu Chen
- School of Civil Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Guangtao Fan
- School of Civil Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Chanjuan Sun
- School of Environment and Architecture, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Yuexia Sun
- Tianjin Key Lab of Indoor Air Environmental Quality Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China
| | - Yingjun Liu
- Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation and Pollution Control, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China
| | - Qihong Deng
- College of Public Health, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China.
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3
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Ali N. Dust dynamics: distribution patterns of semi-volatile organic chemicals across particle sizes in varied indoor microenvironments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:35429-35441. [PMID: 38727973 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33508-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2024] [Accepted: 04/26/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
An extensive analysis of the distribution patterns of three distinct classes of semi-volatile organic chemicals (SVOCs)-phthalates (PAEs), organophosphate flame retardants (OPFRs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)-across four distinct size fractions of dust (25, 50, 100, and 200 μm) was conducted. The dust samples were sourced from AC filter, covered car parking lots, households, hotels, mosques, and car floors. To generate the four fractions, ten dust samples from each microenvironment were pooled and sieved utilizing sieving apparatus with the appropriate mesh size. Selected SVOCs were quantified utilizing gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in electron impact (EI) mode. Results unveiled diverse contamination levels among dust fractions, showcasing car parking lot dust with the lowest chemical contamination, while car floor dust displayed the highest levels of PAHs and OPFRs, peaking at 28.3 µg/g and 43.2 µg/g, respectively. In contrast, mosque and household floor dust exhibited the highest concentrations of phthalates, with values of 985 µg/g and 846 µg/g, respectively. Across the analyzed microenvironments, we observed a trend where concentrations of SVOCs tended to rise as dust particles decreased in size, forming a visually striking pattern. This phenomenon was particularly pronounced in dust samples collected from car floors and parking lots. Among SVOCs, PAEs emerged as the predominant contributors with > 90% followed by OPFRs and PAHs. The high levels of OPFRs in car floor dust align logically with the fact that numerous interior components of cars are treated with OPFRs, within a compact indoor microenvironment, to comply to fire safety regulations. Furthermore, petroleum products are a major source of PAHs in the environment and all the sampled cars in the study had combustion engines. Consequently, car dust is more likely to be polluted with PAHs stemming from petroleum combustion. Although previous investigations have noted an increase in heavy metals and brominated flame retardants with decreasing dust particles, this is the first study analyzing these SVOCs in different fractions of dust from various microenvironments. However, aside from two specific microenvironments, the observed pattern of escalating SVOC concentrations with smaller dust particle sizes was not corroborated among the examined microenvironments. This divergence in concentration trends suggests the potential involvement of supplementary variables in influencing SVOC distributions within dust particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadeem Ali
- Center of Excellence in Environmental Studies, King Abdulaziz University, 21589, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
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4
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Zhou X, Kang L, Wang X, Meng H. A novel method for assessing indoor di 2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) contamination and exposure based on dust-phase concentration. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 349:140994. [PMID: 38141675 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.140994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 12/17/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/25/2023]
Abstract
Phthalates (PAEs) are a group of typical semivolatile organic compounds that are widely present in indoor environments with multiple phases. Indoor air, airborne particle and settled dust are considered to be typical indicators of PAE contamination as well as media of human exposure, and the interactions between them are complex. Among various phthalate compounds, di 2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) was identified as the predominant individual phthalate in settled dust. The existing DEHP contamination assessment requires multiphase sampling or solving the dynamic mass transfer models with multiple partial differential equations, which are both complicated and time-consuming. This study investigated the influence of the indoor source loading rate, surface type, particle size and cleaning frequency on the partitioning between the settled dust-phase, airborne particle-phase and gas-phase. The concentration correlations of DEHP between multiphases were consequently derived, which balance accuracy and complexity well. By comparison with field sampling data in the literatures, the rationality and accuracy of the concentration correlations were validated. Based on the concentration correlations, a new method of directly using dust-phase concentration to estimate the non-dietary exposure to DEHP was proposed. The results indicated that ingestion of settled dust contributes the most to non-dietary exposure. Special attention should be given to infants and toddlers, who suffer the highest daily exposure to DEHP among all age groups. This study provides a new and efficient solution for estimating indoor DEHP pollution loads conveniently and rapidly, offering valuable insights for future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojun Zhou
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710049, China
| | - Lingyi Kang
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710049, China
| | - Xinke Wang
- School of Human Settlements and Civil Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710049, China.
| | - Hui Meng
- Higher Engineering Education Museum, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, Shaanxi, 710049, China
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5
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Song Z, Shi M, Ren X, Wang L, Wu Y, Fan Y, Zhang Y, Xu Y. An integrated non-targeted and targeted analysis approach for identification of semi-volatile organic compounds in indoor dust. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 459:132202. [PMID: 37562352 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2023] [Revised: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/12/2023]
Abstract
Household dust contains a wide variety of semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) that may pose health risks. We developed a method integrating non-targeted analysis (NTA) and targeted analysis (TA) to identify SVOCs in indoor dust. Based on a combined use of gas and liquid chromatography with high-resolution mass spectrometry, an automated, time-efficient NTA workflow was developed, and high accuracy was observed. A total of 128 compounds were identified at confidence level 1 or 2 in NIST standard reference material dust (SRM 2585). Among them, 113 compounds had not been reported previously, and this suggested the value of NTA in characterizing contaminants in dust. Additionally, TA was done to avoid the loss of trace compounds. By integrating data obtained from the NTA and TA approaches, SVOCs in SRM 2585 were prioritized based on exposure and chemical toxicity. Six of the top 20 compounds have never been reported in SRM 2585, including melamine, dinonyl phthalate, oxybenzone, diheptyl phthalate, drometrizole, and 2-phenylphenol. Additionally, significant influences of analytical instruments and sample preparation on NTA results were observed. Overall, the developed method provided a powerful tool for identifying SVOCs in indoor dust, which is necessary to obtain a more complete understanding of chemical exposures and risks in indoor environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zidong Song
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing, China
| | - Meng Shi
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing, China
| | - Xiaopeng Ren
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing, China
| | - Luyang Wang
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing, China
| | - Yili Wu
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing, China
| | - Yujie Fan
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing, China
| | - Yinping Zhang
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Xu
- Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Beijing, China; Department of Civil, Architectural and Environmental Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, TX, USA.
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6
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Poole CF. The effect of the assigned descriptors for phthalate esters on the characterization of their separation properties using the solvation parameter model. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1707:464296. [PMID: 37595351 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 08/09/2023] [Accepted: 08/10/2023] [Indexed: 08/20/2023]
Abstract
Revised descriptors are determined for fifteen phthalate esters for use in the solvation parameter model and form part of the Wayne State University (WSU) compound descriptor database. For thirteen phthalate esters a comparison is made with the same compounds in the Abraham descriptor database. Gas chromatographic retention factors on poly(methyloctylsiloxane), SPB-Octyl, and poly(cyanopropylphenyldimethylsiloxane), DB-225, stationary phases are used to facilitate an assessment of the contribution of cavity formation and dispersion interactions, L descriptor, and dipole-type interactions, S descriptor, to the experimental retention factors (log k) for the phthalate esters with minimum interference from competing intermolecular interactions. The results indicate a systematic overprediction of the cavity and dispersion interaction term and underprediction of dipole-type interactions for the Abraham descriptors compared with the WSU descriptors for the phthalate esters. The average absolute deviation (AAD) for 13 phthalate esters on SPB-Octyl is 0.039 (WSU descriptors) compared with 0.252 (Abraham descriptors) and for 9 phthalate esters on DB-225 0.030 (WSU descriptors) compared with 0.167 (Abraham descriptors). The results for dipole-type interactions are confirmed and extended to include the hydrogen-bond basicity of the phthalate esters, B descriptor, by evaluation of partition constants in aqueous biphasic systems and the n-heptane-2,2,2-trifluoroethanol biphasic system. Differences in the contribution of the hydrogen-bond basicity of the phthalate esters to the experimental partition constants are largely random with respect to database selection but important for the accurate prediction of the partition constants. The AAD for the partition constant for 15 phthalate esters is 0.063 (WSU descriptors) compared with 0.320 (Abraham descriptors) for the heptane-2,2,2-trifluoroethanol biphasic system and 0.13 (WSU descriptors) compared with 0.25 (Abraham descriptors) for 9 phthalate esters in the octanol-water biphasic system. The WSU descriptors for the phthalate esters exhibit a better fit with the experimental data for separation systems and are free of the extreme values predicted for the Abraham descriptors for several phthalate esters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Colin F Poole
- Department of Chemistry, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA.
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7
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Jin Q, Yu J, Fan Y, Zhan Y, Tao D, Tang J, He Y. Release Behavior of Liquid Crystal Monomers from Waste Smartphone Screens: Occurrence, Distribution, and Mechanistic Modeling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023. [PMID: 37369363 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c09602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/29/2023]
Abstract
Liquid crystal display (LCD) screens can release many organic pollutants into the indoor environment, including liquid crystal monomers (LCMs), which have been proposed as a novel class of emerging pollutants. Knowing the release pathways and mechanisms of LCMs from various components of LCD screens is important to accurately assess the LCM release and reveal their environmental transport behavior and fate in the ambient environment. A total of 47, 43, and 33 out of 64 target LCMs were detected in three disassembled parts of waste smartphone screens, including the LCM layer (LL), light guide plate (LGP), and screen protector (SP), respectively. Correlation analysis confirmed LL was the source of LCMs detected in LGP and SP. The emission factors of LCMs from waste screen, SP, and LGP parts were estimated as 2.38 × 10-3, 1.36 × 10-3, and 1.02 × 10-3, respectively. A mechanism model was developed to describe the release behaviors of LCMs from waste screens, where three characteristics parameters of released LCMs, including average mass proportion (AP), predicted subcooled vapor pressures (PL), and octanol-air partitioning coefficients (Koa), involving coexistence of absorption and adsorption mechanisms, could control the diffusion-partitioning. The released LCMs in LGP could reach diffusion-partition equilibrium more quickly than those in SP, indicating that LCM release could be mainly governed through SP diffusions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qianqian Jin
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
| | - Jianxin Yu
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yinzheng Fan
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Yuting Zhan
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Danyang Tao
- Department of Chemistry and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Jingchun Tang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin 300350, China
| | - Yuhe He
- School of Energy and Environment and State Key Laboratory of Marine Pollution, City University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Research Centre for the Oceans and Human Health, City University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518057, China
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8
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Lemay AC, Sontarp EJ, Martinez D, Maruri P, Mohammed R, Neapole R, Wiese M, Willemsen JAR, Bourg IC. Molecular Dynamics Simulation Prediction of the Partitioning Constants ( KH, Kiw, Kia) of 82 Legacy and Emerging Organic Contaminants at the Water-Air Interface. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:6296-6308. [PMID: 37014786 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c00267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
The tendency of organic contaminants (OCs) to partition between different phases is a key set of properties that underlie their human and ecological health impacts and the success of remediation efforts. A significant challenge associated with these efforts is the need for accurate partitioning data for an ever-expanding list of OCs and breakdown products. All-atom molecular dynamics (MD) simulations have the potential to help generate these data, but existing studies have applied these techniques only to a limited variety of OCs. Here, we use established MD simulation approaches to examine the partitioning of 82 OCs, including many compounds of critical concern, at the water-air interface. Our predictions of the Henry's law constant (KH) and interfacial adsorption coefficients (Kiw, Kia) correlate strongly with experimental results, indicating that MD simulations can be used to predict KH, Kiw, and Kia values with mean absolute deviations of 1.1, 0.3, and 0.3 logarithmic units after correcting for systematic bias, respectively. A library of MD simulation input files for the examined OCs is provided to facilitate future investigations of the partitioning of these compounds in the presence of other phases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amélie C Lemay
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Ethan J Sontarp
- Department of Geosciences, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Daniela Martinez
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Philip Maruri
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Raneem Mohammed
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Ryan Neapole
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Morgan Wiese
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Jennifer A R Willemsen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Ian C Bourg
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
- High Meadows Environmental Institute, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
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9
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Huo CY, Li WL, Liu LY, Sun Y, Guo JQ, Wang L, Hung H, Li YF. Seasonal variations of airborne phthalates and novel non-phthalate plasticizers in a test residence in cold regions: Effects of temperature, humidity, total suspended particulate matter, and sources. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 863:160852. [PMID: 36526181 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
As a class of plasticizers widely used in consumer products, some phthalate esters (PAEs) have been restricted due to their adverse health effects and ubiquitous presence, leading to the introduction of alternative non-phthalates plasticizers (NPPs) to the market. However, few studies focus on the influence of environmental parameters on the presence of these plasticizers and the potential human health risks for people living in poorly ventilated indoor spaces in cold regions. We investigated the trends of PAEs and NPPs in air in a typical indoor residence in northern China for over one year. The air concentrations of PAEs were significantly higher than those of NPPs (p < 0.05), indicating that PAEs are still the dominant plasticizers currently being used in the studied residence. PAEs showed seasonal fluctuation patterns of the highest levels found in summer and autumn. The temperature and relative humidity dependence for most PAEs and NPPs decreased with decreasing vapor pressure. Concentrations of the high molecular weight NPPs and PAEs positively correlated with total suspended particles (TSP). It is worth noting that the peak concentrations of PAEs and NPPs were found when the haze occurred in autumn. Principal component analysis (PCA) suggested the diverse applications of PAEs and NPPs in the indoor environment. The hazard index (HI) values observed in this study were all below international guidelines (<1); however, the average carcinogenic risk (CR) values for some compounds exceeded acceptable levels (One in a million), which raised concerns about the possibility of carcinogenicity for people living indoors for long periods of time in cold regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Yan Huo
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; University Corporation for Polar Research, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Wen-Long Li
- College of the Environment and Ecology, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China; Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Li-Yan Liu
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; University Corporation for Polar Research, Beijing 100875, China.
| | - Yu Sun
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; University Corporation for Polar Research, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Jia-Qi Guo
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; University Corporation for Polar Research, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Liang Wang
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; University Corporation for Polar Research, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Hayley Hung
- Air Quality Processes Research Section, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 4905 Dufferin Street, Toronto, Ontario M3H 5T4, Canada
| | - Yi-Fan Li
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), International Joint Research Center for Arctic Environment and Ecosystem (IJRC-AEE), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China; University Corporation for Polar Research, Beijing 100875, China; IJRC-PTS-NA, Toronto M2N 6X9, Canada
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10
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Rusina TP, Jílková SR, Melymuk L, Vrana B, Smedes F. Accessibility investigation of semi-volatile organic compounds in indoor dust estimated by multi-ratio equilibrium passive sampling. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2023; 219:115105. [PMID: 36549487 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.115105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Many semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) accumulate in indoor dust, which serves as a repository for those compounds. The presence of SVOCs in indoor environments is of concern because many of them are suspected to have toxic effects. Total SVOC concentrations in the dust are generally used for exposure assessment to indoor contaminants, assuming that 100% of the SVOCs is accessible for human uptake. However, such an assumption may potentially lead to an overestimated risk related to dust exposure. We applied a multi-ratio equilibrium passive sampling (MR-EPS) for estimation of SVOC accessibility in indoor settled dust using silicone passive samplers and three particle size dust fractions, <0.25 mm, 0.25-0.5 mm, and 1-2 mm in dry and wet conditions. Equilibrations were performed at various sampler-dust mass ratios to achieve different degrees of SVOC depletion, allowing the construction of a desorption isotherm. The desorption isotherms provided accessible fractions (FAS), equivalent air concentrations (CAIR), dust-air partition coefficients (KDUST-AIR) and organic carbon-air partition coefficients (KOC-AIR). The highest FAS were observed in the <0.25 mm dust fraction in wet conditions which is relevant for exposure assessment via oral ingestion. The highest CAIR were estimated for several organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and synthetic musks. The logKOC-AIR did not differ between dust particle sizes in dry and wet conditions but within compound groups, different relationships with hydrophobicity were observed. Equivalent lipid-based concentrations (CL⇌DUST) calculated using available lipid-silicone partition coefficients (KLIP-SIL) were compared with lipid-based concentrations (CL) measured in human-related samples collected from Europeans. For hexachlorobenzene (HCB), CL⇌DUST, and CL were similar, indicating equilibrium attainment between environment and human samples. Lipid-based concentrations for persistent legacy contaminants were also similar but lower for PBDEs in human samples. Overall, accessibility estimation using MR-EPS in dust further contributes to human risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsiana P Rusina
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37, Brno, Czech Republic.
| | - Simona Rozárka Jílková
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Lisa Melymuk
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Branislav Vrana
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Foppe Smedes
- RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Kotlářská 2, 611 37, Brno, Czech Republic
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11
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Bai L, Lv K, Li J, Gao W, Liao C, Wang Y, Jiang G. Evaluating the dynamic distribution process and potential exposure risk of chlorinated paraffins in indoor environments of Beijing, China. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 441:129907. [PMID: 36099735 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 09/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) are typical semi-volatile chemicals (SVOCs) that have been used in copious quantities in indoor material additives. SVOCs distribute dynamically between the gas phase and various condensate phases, especially organic films. Investigating the dynamic behaviors of existing CPs in indoor environments is necessary for understanding their potential risk to humans from indoor exposure. We investigate the distribution profiles of CPs in both gas phase and organic films in indoor environments of residential buildings in Beijing, China. The concentrations of CPs were in the range of 32.21-1447 ng/m3 in indoor air and in the range of 42.30-431.1 μg/m2 and in organic films. Cooking frequency was identified as a key factor that affected the distribution profiles of CPs. Furthermore, a film/gas partitioning model was constructed to explore the transportation and fate of CPs. Interestingly, a re-emission phenomenon from organic films was observed for chemical groups with lower log Koa components, and, importantly, their residue levels in indoor air were well predicted. The estimated exposure risk of CPs in indoor environment was obtained. For the first time, these results produced convincing evidence that the co-exposure risk of short-chain CPs (SCCPs), medium-chain CPs (MCCPs), and long-chain CPs (LCCPs) in indoor air could be further increased by film/gas distribution properties, which is relevant for performing risk assessments of exposure to these SVOCs in indoor environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Bai
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Kun Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Juan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China.
| | - Wei Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; School of Public Health, Qingdao University, Qingdao 266021, China
| | - Chunyang Liao
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Yawei Wang
- School of Environment, Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou 310024, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Guibin Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
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12
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Jin X, Wu D, Liu C, Huang S, Zhou Z, Wu H, Chen X, Huang M, Zhou S, Gu C. Facet effect of hematite on the hydrolysis of phthalate esters under ambient humidity conditions. Nat Commun 2022; 13:6125. [PMID: 36253413 PMCID: PMC9576771 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-33950-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Phthalate esters (PAEs) have been extensively used as additives in plastics and wallcovering, causing severe environmental contamination and increasing public health concerns. Here, we find that hematite nanoparticles with specific facet-control can efficiently catalyze PAEs hydrolysis under ambient humidity conditions, with the hydrolysis rates 2 orders of magnitude higher than that in water saturated condition. The catalytic performance of hematite shows a significant facet-dependence with the reactivity in the order {012} > {104} ≫ {001}, related to the atomic array of surface undercoordinated Fe. The {012} and {104} facets with the proper neighboring Fe-Fe distance of 0.34-0.39 nm can bidentately coordinate with PAEs, and thus induce much stronger Lewis-acid catalysis. Our study may inspire the development of nanomaterials with appropriate surface atomic arrays, improves our understanding for the natural transformation of PAEs under low humidity environment, and provides a promising approach to remediate/purify the ambient air contaminated by PAEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Jin
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XState Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, 210023 Nanjing, China
| | - Dingding Wu
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XState Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, 210023 Nanjing, China
| | - Cun Liu
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 210008 Nanjing, China
| | - Shuhan Huang
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XState Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, 210023 Nanjing, China
| | - Ziyan Zhou
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XState Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, 210023 Nanjing, China
| | - Hao Wu
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XState Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, 210023 Nanjing, China
| | - Xiru Chen
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XState Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, 210023 Nanjing, China
| | - Meiying Huang
- grid.9227.e0000000119573309Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 210008 Nanjing, China
| | - Shaoda Zhou
- Nanjing Kaver Scientific Instrument Co. Ltd., 210042 Nanjing, China
| | - Cheng Gu
- grid.41156.370000 0001 2314 964XState Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of Environment, Nanjing University, 210023 Nanjing, China
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13
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Rasmussen PE, Kubwabo C, Gardner HD, Levesque C, Beauchemin S. Relationships between House Characteristics and Exposures to Metal(loid)s and Synthetic Organic Contaminants Evaluated Using Settled Indoor Dust. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:10329. [PMID: 36011971 PMCID: PMC9408639 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph191610329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
This study investigates associations between house characteristics and chemical contaminants in house dust, collected under the nationally representative Canadian House Dust Study (2007−2010). Vacuum samples (<80 µm fraction) were analysed for over 200 synthetic organic compounds and metal(loid)s. Spearman rank correlations between contaminant concentrations in dust and presence of children and pets, types of flooring, heating styles and other characteristics suggested a number of indoor sources, pointing to future research directions. Numerous synthetic organics were significantly associated with reported use of room deodorizers and with the presence of cats in the home. Hardwood flooring, which is a manufactured wood product, emerged as a source of metal(loid)s, phthalates, organophosphate flame retardants/plasticizers, and obsolete organochlorine pesticides such as ∑DDT (but not halogenated flame retardants). Many metal(loid)s were significantly correlated with flame-retardant compounds used in building materials and heating systems. Components of heating appliances and heat distribution systems appeared to contribute heat-resistant chemicals and alloys to settled dust. Carpets displayed a dual role as both a source and repository of dust-borne contaminants. Contaminant loadings (<80 µm fraction) were significantly elevated in heavily carpeted homes, particularly those located near industry. Depending on the chemical (and its source), the results show that increased dust mass loading may enrich or dilute chemical concentrations in dust. Research is needed to improve the characterisation of hidden indoor sources such as flame retardants used in building materials and heating systems, or undisclosed ingredients used in common household products, such as air fresheners and products used for companion animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pat E. Rasmussen
- Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, HECS Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 9A7, Canada
| | - Cariton Kubwabo
- Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, HECS Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - H. David Gardner
- Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, HECS Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON K1N 9A7, Canada
| | - Christine Levesque
- Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, HECS Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
| | - Suzanne Beauchemin
- Environmental Health Science and Research Bureau, HECS Branch, Health Canada, Ottawa, ON K1A 0K9, Canada
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14
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Wei W, Little JC, Nicolas M, Ramalho O, Mandin C. Modeling Primary Emissions of Chemicals from Liquid Products Applied on Indoor Surfaces. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:10122. [PMID: 36011756 PMCID: PMC9407831 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph191610122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2022] [Revised: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Liquid products applied on material surfaces and human skin, including many household cleaning products and personal care products, can lead to intermittent emissions of chemicals and peak concentrations in indoor air. The existing case-based models do not allow inter-comparison of different use scenarios and emission mechanisms. In this context, the present work developed a mechanistic model based on mass transfer theories, which allowed emissions into the air from the liquid product to be characterized. It also allowed for diffusion into the applied surface during product use and re-emission from the applied surface after the depletion of the liquid product. The model was validated using literature data on chemical emissions following floor cleaning and personal care product use. A sensitivity analysis of the model was then conducted. The percentage of the chemical mass emitted from the liquid to the air varied from 45% (applied on porous material) to 99% (applied on human skin), and the rest was absorbed into the applied material/skin. The peak gas-phase concentration, the time to reach the peak concentration, and the percentage of the liquid-to-air emission depended significantly on the chemical's octanol/gas and material/gas partition coefficients and the diffusion coefficient of the chemical in the applied material/skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenjuan Wei
- Scientific and Technical Center for Building (CSTB), Health and Comfort Department, French Indoor Air Quality Observatory (OQAI), University of Paris-Est, CEDEX 2, 77447 Marne la Vallée, France
| | - John C. Little
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - Mélanie Nicolas
- Scientific and Technical Center for Building (CSTB), Health and Comfort Department, French Indoor Air Quality Observatory (OQAI), University of Paris-Est, CEDEX 2, 77447 Marne la Vallée, France
| | - Olivier Ramalho
- Scientific and Technical Center for Building (CSTB), Health and Comfort Department, French Indoor Air Quality Observatory (OQAI), University of Paris-Est, CEDEX 2, 77447 Marne la Vallée, France
| | - Corinne Mandin
- Scientific and Technical Center for Building (CSTB), Health and Comfort Department, French Indoor Air Quality Observatory (OQAI), University of Paris-Est, CEDEX 2, 77447 Marne la Vallée, France
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15
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Li H, Liu Y, Lan Y, Zhao Y, Lu A, Li C, Lei R, Xue J, Liu W. A nationwide survey of 20 legacy brominated flame retardants in indoor dust from China: continuing occurrence, national distribution, and implication for human exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2022; 29:58828-58842. [PMID: 35368237 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-19850-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Despite the restrictions on polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDDs), these chemicals are still ubiquitous environmental pollutants. In this study, we measured the concentrations and profiles of 17 PBDE congeners and 3 HBCDD isomers in indoor dust samples collected from 23 provinces and cities across China. The summed concentrations of PBDEs (Σ17PBDEs) ranged from 4.19 to 817 ng/g, with an average of 171 ± 184 ng/g. BDE-209 was the most abundant congener. The concentrations of HBCDDs ranged from 6.65 to 1335 ng/g, with an average of 236 ± 324 ng/g. Unlike commercial HBCDD formulations, α-HBCDD was the predominant isomer in the indoor dust samples analyzed. Geographical distributions showed that the concentrations of PBDEs and HBCDDs varied significantly among different regions. Higher PBDE and HBCDD levels were observed in samples from eastern coastal and economically developed regions. Further, we estimated the daily intakes of PBDEs and HBCDDs through the routes of dust ingestion and dust dermal absorption for different age groups. Dust dermal absorption is an unneglectable exposure pathway to PBDEs and HBCDs for the Chinese population. Among the age groups, infants had the highest exposure via dust dermal absorption, and toddlers had the highest exposure via dust ingestion. Compared with the threshold values, the exposure doses of PBDEs and HBCDDs are unlikely to pose significant health concerns for both infants and adults in China. This is the first national survey of PBDEs and HBCDDs in indoor dust samples across China after the restriction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haifeng Li
- Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Agriculture Environment Monitoring, Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology of Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, 100097, China
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Yuxian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Ministry of Education for Water Quality Security and Protection in Pearl River Delta, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yongyin Lan
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yanan Zhao
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Anxiang Lu
- Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Agriculture Environment Monitoring, Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology of Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, 100097, China
| | - Cheng Li
- Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Agriculture Environment Monitoring, Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology of Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, 100097, China
| | - Rongrong Lei
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jingchuan Xue
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Wenbin Liu
- Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China.
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China.
- Hangzhou Institute for Advanced Study, UCAS, Hangzhou, 310024, China.
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16
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Wang J, Xu Z, Yao J, Hu M, Sun Y, Dong C, Bu Z. Identification of Phthalates from Artificial Products in Chinese Kindergarten Classrooms and the Implications for Preschool Children's Exposure Assessments. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19138011. [PMID: 35805676 PMCID: PMC9265414 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19138011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2022] [Revised: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Phthalates are typical chemical pollutants in kindergarten classrooms since numerous artificial products (e.g., polyvinyl chloride (PVC) floorings, soft polymers and plastic toys) that might contain phthalates are widely distributed in kindergarten classrooms. Although Chinese preschool children spend a considerable amount of their waking hours (>8 h/day) in kindergartens, phthalate exposure in such indoor environment has not been given much attention. In this study, the mass fractions of six phthalates in twenty-six artificial products (fifteen flat decoration materials and eleven plastic toys) commonly found in Chinese kindergarten classrooms were measured. Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) was the most predominant compound in all materials. The emission characteristics of the DEHP from these materials were further investigated. The measured emission characteristics were used for predicting multi-phase DEHP concentrations in kindergarten classrooms by applying a mass transfer model. The modeled concentrations were comparable with those measured in the real environment, indicating that these products might be the major sources of DEHP in Chinese kindergarten classrooms. Preschool children’s exposure to DEHP was found to be 0.42 μg/kg/day in kindergartens under baseline conditions, accounting for 18% of the total exposure to DEHP in Chinese indoor environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiahui Wang
- School of Urban Construction, Hangzhou Polytechnic, Hangzhou 311402, China;
| | - Zefei Xu
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China; (Z.X.); (J.Y.); (M.H.); (Y.S.); (C.D.)
| | - Jingyu Yao
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China; (Z.X.); (J.Y.); (M.H.); (Y.S.); (C.D.)
| | - Maochao Hu
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China; (Z.X.); (J.Y.); (M.H.); (Y.S.); (C.D.)
| | - Yuewen Sun
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China; (Z.X.); (J.Y.); (M.H.); (Y.S.); (C.D.)
- College of Energy and Environment, Shenyang Aerospace University, Shenyang 110136, China
| | - Cong Dong
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China; (Z.X.); (J.Y.); (M.H.); (Y.S.); (C.D.)
| | - Zhongming Bu
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou 310023, China; (Z.X.); (J.Y.); (M.H.); (Y.S.); (C.D.)
- Correspondence:
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17
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Wang H, Wang H, Zhang X, Xiong J, Liu X. Investigation on the Direct Transfer of SVOCs from Source to Settled Dust: Analytical Model and Key Parameter Determination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:5489-5496. [PMID: 35442662 PMCID: PMC9229406 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c08257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Settled dust is an important medium for semivolatile organic compound (SVOC) transport indoors. Understanding the mechanism of interaction between SVOCs and settled dust can greatly improve the exposure assessment. This study develops an analytical model to elucidate the mechanism of direct contact between SVOC sources and settled dust. The model incorporates the adsorption of SVOCs onto indoor surfaces, which was ignored in previous numerical models. Based on this model, a hybrid optimization method is applied to determine the key parameters of SVOC transport, i.e., the diffusion coefficient in the dust, the dust-air partition coefficient, and the chamber surface-air partition coefficient. Experiments of direct contact between SVOC source materials containing organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) and settled dust were conducted in chambers. The key parameters were determined by performing curve fitting using data collected from the OPFR chamber tests and from the literature on phthalates. The reliability and robustness of the model and measurement method are demonstrated by the high fitting accuracy and sensitivity analysis. The obtained key parameters are more accurate than those from correlations in prior studies. Further analysis indicates that dust-air partition coefficient plays an important role and the adsorption effect on surfaces cannot be neglected for SVOC transport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Haimei Wang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xuankai Zhang
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jianyin Xiong
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
- Corresponding author. Jianyin Xiong. Tel.: +86 1068914304; , Xiaoyu Liu. Tel.; 1 9195412459;
| | - Xiaoyu Liu
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711, USA
- Corresponding author. Jianyin Xiong. Tel.: +86 1068914304; , Xiaoyu Liu. Tel.; 1 9195412459;
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18
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Eichler CMA, Bi C, Wang C, Little JC. A modular mechanistic framework for estimating exposure to SVOCs: Next steps for modeling emission and partitioning of plasticizers and PFAS. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2022; 32:356-365. [PMID: 35318457 DOI: 10.1038/s41370-022-00419-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Revised: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Estimates of human exposure to semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) such as phthalates, phthalate alternatives, and some per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are required for the risk-based evaluation of chemicals. Recently, a modular mechanistic modeling framework to rapidly predict SVOC emission and partitioning in indoor environments has been presented, in which several mechanistically consistent source emission categories (SECs) were identified. However, not all SECs have well-developed emission models. In addition, data on model parameters are missing even for frequently studied SVOCs. These knowledge gaps impede the comprehensive prediction of the fate of SVOCs indoors. In this paper, sets of high-priority phthalates, phthalate alternatives, and PFAS were identified based on chemical occurrence indoors and additional selection criteria. These high-priority chemicals served as the basis for exploring model parameter availability for existing indoor SVOC emission and partitioning models. The results reveal that additional experimental and modeling work is needed to fully understand the behavior of SVOCs indoors and to predict exposures with greater confidence and lower uncertainty. Modeling approaches to fill some of the identified gaps are proposed. The prioritized sets of chemicals and proposed new modeling approaches will help guide future research. The inclusion of polar phases in the framework will further expand its applicability and scope. IMPACT STATEMENT: This paper compiles data on high-priority chemicals commonly found indoors and information on the availability of applicable models and model parameters to predict emission, partitioning, and subsequent exposure to these chemicals. Modeling approaches for a selection of the missing SECs (source emission categories) are proposed, to illustrate the path forward. The comprehensive data set helps inform researchers, exposure assessors, and policy makers to better understand the state of the science regarding modeling of indoor exposure to semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) and per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara M A Eichler
- Virginia Tech, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Blacksburg, VA, USA.
- University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Gillings School of Global Public Health, Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Chapel Hill, NC, USA.
| | - Chenyang Bi
- Virginia Tech, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Chunyi Wang
- Virginia Tech, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - John C Little
- Virginia Tech, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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19
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The selected epigenetic effects of phthalates: DBP, BBP and their metabolites: MBP, MBzP on human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (In Vitro). Toxicol In Vitro 2022; 82:105369. [PMID: 35487445 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2022.105369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 03/27/2022] [Accepted: 04/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Phthalates are classified as non-genotoxic carcinogens. These compounds do not cause direct DNA damage but may induce indirect DNA lesions leading to cancer development. In the presented paper we have studied the effect of di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP), and their metabolites, such as mono-n-butyl phthalate (MBP) and monobenzyl phthalate (MBzP) on selected epigenetic parameters in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). The cells were incubated with tested phthalates at 0.001, 0.01 and 0.1 μg/mL for 24 h. Next, global DNA methylation, methylation in the promoter regions of tumor suppressor genes (P16, TP53) and proto-oncogenes (BCL2, CCND1) were assessed as well as the expression profile of the indicated genes was analysed. The obtained results have revealed significant reduction of global DNA methylation level in PBMCs exposed to BBP, MBP and MBzP. Phthalates changed methylation pattern of the tested genes, decreased expression of P16 and TP53 genes and increased the expression of BCL2 and CCND1. In conclusion, our results have shown that the examined phthalates disturbed the processes of methylation and expression of tumor suppressor genes (P16, TP53) and protooncogenes (BCL2, CCND1) in human PBMCs.
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Wang X, Zhang Y, Huang B, Chen Z, Zhong M, Lu Q, Fan Y, Liu X, Ji Q. Phthalate pollution and migration in soil-air-vegetable systems in typical plastic agricultural greenhouses in northwestern China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 809:151101. [PMID: 34688734 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.151101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 09/04/2021] [Accepted: 10/16/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Phthalate pollution in plastic greenhouses (PGs) has aroused concerns. However, mechanisms and factors of vegetables planted in PGs (VPGs) accumulating phthalates from soil and air are unclear. To fill the gap, 19 PGs in Shaanxi, the largest vegetable production province in northwestern China, were selected to probe this issue. 35 soil samples, 48 air samples, and 26 VPG samples were collected in winter and summer. Medians of sum of 7 phthalate concentrations (∑7 PAEs) in PG soil, air, and VPGs were 73.9 μg kg-1, 5300 ng m-3, and 1053 μg kg-1 dry weight, respectively. ∑7 PAE concentrations in PG environmental media in winter were higher than summer, with the significant difference in VPGs. Sum concentrations of bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) accounted for 76.8% and 82.3% of the ∑7 PAEs in soil and VPGs. DnBP and DEHP concentrations in VPGs were significantly correlated to those in air and soil, with correlation coefficients (R) of 0.89 and 0.96 to air and 0.68 and 0.59 to soil. Log-transformed soil-air partition coefficient (log KSA) and fugacity fraction (log ff) of DnBP decreased while log KSA and log ff of DEHP increased from winter to summer, though DnBP in soil volatilized to air while DEHP in air sank to soil within the year. These issues were caused by air temperature changes and the application of plastic films. Furthermore, DnBP concentrations in VPGs were positively correlated to KSA values of DnBP (R = 0.87) while those of DEHP were negative (R = -0.82). Therefore, VPGs could uptake more phthalates from air than from soil, especially for edible parts of leafy and solanaceous VPGs. Applying phthalates free agricultural films and precision management such as adjusting air temperature in PGs could be considered to ensure VPG safeties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinkai Wang
- Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yanxia Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China; School of Environment, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China; State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China; Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies, Aarhus University, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
| | - Biao Huang
- Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhikun Chen
- Key Laboratory of Soil Resource & Biotech Applications, Shaanxi Academy of Sciences, Xi'an Botanical Garden of Shaanxi Province (Institute of Botany of Shaanxi Province), Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Ming Zhong
- Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Qiangqiang Lu
- Key Laboratory of Soil Resource & Biotech Applications, Shaanxi Academy of Sciences, Xi'an Botanical Garden of Shaanxi Province (Institute of Botany of Shaanxi Province), Xi'an 710061, China; School of Geography and Tourism, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an 710119, China
| | - Ya'nan Fan
- Key Laboratory of Soil Environment and Pollution Remediation, Institute of Soil Science, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China; College of Resources and Environment, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Xiaofei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Soil Resource & Biotech Applications, Shaanxi Academy of Sciences, Xi'an Botanical Garden of Shaanxi Province (Institute of Botany of Shaanxi Province), Xi'an 710061, China
| | - Qingsong Ji
- School of Environment, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210023, China
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Liu X. Understanding Semi-volatile Organic Compounds (SVOCs) in Indoor Dust. INDOOR + BUILT ENVIRONMENT : THE JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY OF THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT 2022; 31:291-298. [PMID: 35221787 PMCID: PMC8879700 DOI: 10.1177/1420326x211070859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Liu
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Research Triangle Park, NC 27711
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Bu Z, Hu M, Yuan F, Xu Y, Dong C, Zhang N, Mmereki D, Cao J, Zheng Y. Phthalates in Chinese vehicular environments: Source emissions, concentrations, and human exposure. INDOOR AIR 2021; 31:2118-2129. [PMID: 34288145 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 06/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/11/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Phthalates are typical air pollutants in vehicular environment since numerous synthetic materials that might contain phthalates are widely used to fabricate vehicle interiors (e.g., seat cushions, floor mats and dashboards). Hitherto, the importance of phthalate pollution in vehicular environment is not well-recognized because people spend only a small portion (around 8%) of their time in vehicles. In this study, the mass fractions of six phthalates in nine materials commonly used in Chinese vehicles (floor mats and seat cushions) were measured. Two phthalates, di-n-butyl phthalate (DnBP) and di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP), were identified in most materials (the other phthalates were not detected). The emission characteristics of DnBP and DEHP from these materials were further investigated. The measured emission parameters were used as input for a mass-transfer model to estimate DnBP and DEHP concentrations in cabin air. Finally, the ratios between human exposures (via inhalation and dermal absorption from the gas phase) in vehicular environment and the total exposures in typical indoor environments (e.g., residences and offices) were estimated to be up to 110% and 20% for DnBP and DEHP, respectively. Based on these results, the vehicular environment might be a considerable site for human exposure to airborne phthalates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongming Bu
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Maochao Hu
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Fangzhou Yuan
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yousheng Xu
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Cong Dong
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, China
| | - Nan Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Green Built Environment and Energy Efficient Technology, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China
| | - Daniel Mmereki
- Faculty of Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Jianping Cao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Youqu Zheng
- Department of Energy and Environmental System Engineering, Zhejiang University of Science and Technology, Hangzhou, China
- College of Mechanical Engineering, Quzhou University, Quzhou, China
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Ly NH, Son SJ, Jang S, Lee C, Lee JI, Joo SW. Surface-Enhanced Raman Sensing of Semi-Volatile Organic Compounds by Plasmonic Nanostructures. NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11102619. [PMID: 34685057 PMCID: PMC8541515 DOI: 10.3390/nano11102619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Facile detection of indoor semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) is a critical issue to raise an increasing concern to current researchers, since their emissions have impacted the health of humans, who spend much of their time indoors after the recent incessant COVID-19 pandemic outbreaks. Plasmonic nanomaterial platforms can utilize an electromagnetic field to induce significant Raman signal enhancements of vibrational spectra of pollutant molecules from localized hotspots. Surface-enhanced Raman scattering (SERS) sensing based on functional plasmonic nanostructures has currently emerged as a powerful analytical technique, which is widely adopted for the ultra-sensitive detection of SVOC molecules, including phthalates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) from household chemicals in indoor environments. This concise topical review gives updated recent developments and trends in optical sensors of surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and SERS for effective sensing of SVOCs by functionalization of noble metal nanostructures. Specific features of plasmonic nanomaterials utilized in sensors are evaluated comparatively, including their various sizes and shapes. Novel aptasensors-assisted SERS technology and its potential application are also introduced for selective sensing. The current challenges and perspectives on SERS-based optical sensors using plasmonic nanomaterial platforms and aptasensors are discussed for applying indoor SVOC detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nguyễn Hoàng Ly
- Department of Chemistry, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Korea;
| | - Sang Jun Son
- Department of Chemistry, Gachon University, Seongnam 13120, Korea;
- Correspondence: (S.J.S.); (J.I.L.); (S.-W.J.)
| | - Soonmin Jang
- Department of Chemistry, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Korea;
| | - Cheolmin Lee
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, Seokyeong University, Seoul 02713, Korea;
| | - Jung Il Lee
- Korea Testing & Research Institute, Gwacheon 13810, Korea
- Correspondence: (S.J.S.); (J.I.L.); (S.-W.J.)
| | - Sang-Woo Joo
- Department of Chemistry, Soongsil University, Seoul 06978, Korea
- Correspondence: (S.J.S.); (J.I.L.); (S.-W.J.)
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Luís C, Algarra M, Câmara JS, Perestrelo R. Comprehensive Insight from Phthalates Occurrence: From Health Outcomes to Emerging Analytical Approaches. TOXICS 2021; 9:toxics9070157. [PMID: 34357900 PMCID: PMC8309855 DOI: 10.3390/toxics9070157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Revised: 06/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Phthalates are a group of chemicals used in a multitude of important industrial products (e.g., medical devices, children's toys, and food packages), mainly as plasticizers to improve mechanical properties such as flexibility, transparency, durability, and longevity of polyvinyl chloride (PVC). The wide occurrence of phthalates in many consumer products, including foods (e.g., bottled water, soft drinks, wine, milk, and meat) brings that most people are exposed to phthalates every day, which raises some concerns. Adverse health outcomes from phthalates exposure have been associated with endocrine disruption, deformities in the human reproductive system, increased risk of preterm birth, carcinogen exposure, among others. Apprehension related to the health risks and ubiquitous incidence of phthalates in foods inspires the development of reliable analytical approaches that allow their detection and quantification at trace levels. The purpose of the current review is to provide information related to the presence of phthalates in the food chain, highlighting the health risks associated with their exposure. Moreover, an overview of emerging extraction procedures and high-resolution analytical approaches for a comprehensive quantification of phthalates is presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Luís
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (C.L.); (J.S.C.)
- Faculdade de Ciências da Vida, Unidade de Ciências Médicas, Universidade da Madeira, Campus Universitário da Penteada, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - Manuel Algarra
- Department of Inorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Campus de Teatinos s/n, University of Málaga, 29071 Malaga, Spain;
| | - José S. Câmara
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (C.L.); (J.S.C.)
- Departamento de Química, Faculdade de Ciências e Engenharia, Campus da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal
| | - Rosa Perestrelo
- CQM-Centro de Química da Madeira, Campus da Penteada, Universidade da Madeira, 9020-105 Funchal, Portugal; (C.L.); (J.S.C.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +351-291-705-224
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