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Cao H, Xie X, Xiao Z, Liu W. Transferability of Machine Learning Models for Geogenic Contaminated Groundwaters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:8783-8791. [PMID: 38718173 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c01327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Machine learning models show promise in identifying geogenic contaminated groundwaters. Modeling in regions with no or limited samples is challenging due to the need for large training sets. One potential solution is transferring existing models to such regions. This study explores the transferability of high fluoride groundwater models between basins in the Shanxi Rift System, considering six factors, including modeling methods, predictor types, data size, sample/predictor ratio (SPR), predictor range, and data informing. Results show that transferability is achieved only when model predictors are based on hydrochemical parameters rather than surface parameters. Data informing, i.e., adding samples from challenging regions to the training set, further enhances the transferability. Stepwise regression shows that hydrochemical predictors and data informing significantly improve transferability, while data size, SPR, and predictor range have no significant effects. Additionally, despite their stronger nonlinear capabilities, random forests and artificial neural networks do not necessarily surpass logistic regression in transferability. Lastly, we utilize the t-SNE algorithm to generate low-dimensional representations of data from different basins and compare these representations to elucidate the critical role of predictor types in transferability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hailong Cao
- College of Resources and Environment, Yangtze University, Wuhan 430100, China
| | - Xianjun Xie
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Source Apportionment and Control of Aquatic Pollution, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430078, China
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Ziyi Xiao
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Source Apportionment and Control of Aquatic Pollution, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430078, China
- School of Environmental Studies, China University of Geosciences, Wuhan 430074, China
| | - Wenjing Liu
- School of Environmental & Resource Sciences, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China
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Wei C, Zhao P, Wang Y, Wang Y, Mo S, Zhou Y. Aerosol influence on cloud macrophysical and microphysical properties over the Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent regions. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024; 31:30174-30195. [PMID: 38600373 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33247-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
This study uses aerosol optical depth (AOD) and cloud properties data to investigate the influence of aerosol on the cloud properties over the Tibetan Plateau and its adjacent regions. The study regions are divided as the western part of the Tibetan Plateau (WTP), the Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP), and the Sichuan Basin (SCB). All three regions show significant cloud effects under low aerosol loading conditions. In WTP, under low aerosol loading conditions, the effective radius of liquid cloud particles (LREF) decreases with the increase of aerosol loading, while the effective radius of ice cloud particles (IREF) and cloud top height (CTH) increase during the cold season. Increased aerosol loading might inhibit the development of warm rain processes, transporting more cloud droplets above the freezing level and promoting ice cloud development. During the warm season, under low aerosol loading conditions, both the cloud microphysical (LREF and IREF) and macrophysical (cloud top height and cloud fraction) properties increase with the increase of aerosol loading, likely due to higher dust aerosol concentration in this region. In IGP, both LREF and IREF increase with the increase in aerosol loading during the cold season. In SCB, LREF increases with the increase in aerosol loading, while IREF decreases, possibly due to the higher hygroscopic aerosol concentration in the SCB during the cold season. Meteorological conditions also modulate the aerosol-cloud interaction. Under different convective available potential energy (CAPE) and relative humidity (RH) conditions, the influence of aerosol on clouds varies in the three regions. Under low CAPE and RH conditions, the relationship between LREF and aerosol in both the cold and warm seasons is opposite in the WTP: LREF decreases with the increase of aerosol in the cold season, while it increases in the warm season. This discrepancy may be attributed to a difference in the moisture condition between the cold and warm seasons in this region. In general, the influence of aerosols on cloud properties in TP and its adjacent regions is characterized by significant nonlinearity and spatial variability, which is likely related to the differences in aerosol types and meteorological conditions between different regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengqiang Wei
- Plateau Atmosphere and Environment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Plain Urban Meteorology and Environment Observation and Research Station of Sichuan Province, College of Atmospheric Science, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu, 610225, China
| | - Pengguo Zhao
- Plateau Atmosphere and Environment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Plain Urban Meteorology and Environment Observation and Research Station of Sichuan Province, College of Atmospheric Science, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu, 610225, China.
| | - Yuting Wang
- Plateau Atmosphere and Environment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Plain Urban Meteorology and Environment Observation and Research Station of Sichuan Province, College of Atmospheric Science, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu, 610225, China
| | - Yuan Wang
- Plateau Atmosphere and Environment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Plain Urban Meteorology and Environment Observation and Research Station of Sichuan Province, College of Atmospheric Science, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu, 610225, China
| | - Shuying Mo
- Plateau Atmosphere and Environment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Plain Urban Meteorology and Environment Observation and Research Station of Sichuan Province, College of Atmospheric Science, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu, 610225, China
| | - Yunjun Zhou
- Plateau Atmosphere and Environment Key Laboratory of Sichuan Province, Chengdu Plain Urban Meteorology and Environment Observation and Research Station of Sichuan Province, College of Atmospheric Science, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu, 610225, China
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Ni Y, Yang Y, Wang H, Li H, Li M, Wang P, Li K, Liao H. Contrasting changes in ozone during 2019-2021 between eastern and the other regions of China attributed to anthropogenic emissions and meteorological conditions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 908:168272. [PMID: 37924894 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2023] [Revised: 10/09/2023] [Accepted: 10/30/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023]
Abstract
Ozone pollution is one of the most severe air quality issues in China that poses a serious threat to human health and ecosystems. During 2019-2021, the maximum daily 8-h average ozone concentrations in eastern China (110-122.5°E, 26-42°N) and the rest of China (ROC) show different decreasing patterns, with ozone concentrations in eastern China decreasing by 14.9 μg/m3, which is much larger than 4.8 μg/m3 in ROC. Here, based on two independent methods, the atmospheric chemical transport model (GEOS-Chem) simulations and the machine learning (ML) model (LightGBM) predictions, the reasons for the differences in ozone changes between eastern China and ROC during the warm season (April to September) are investigated. According to the GEOS-Chem (LightGBM) results, changes in the meteorological conditions contributed to an ozone decrease by 7.3 (6.8) μg/m3 in eastern China due to decreased chemical production and an ozone decrease by 6.8 (7.0) μg/m3 in ROC attributed to the weakened horizontal and vertical advection. With the influence of meteorological factors excluded, the observations show that changes in anthropogenic emissions resulted in an ozone decrease by 7.6 (8.1) μg/m3 in eastern China and an ozone increase by 2.0 (2.2) μg/m3 in ROC, which is primarily induced by the changes in NOx emissions. The surface measurements and satellite retrievals also indicate that the reduction in NOx emissions in ROC is less efficient than that in the more developed eastern China, leading to contrasting changes in ozone concentrations between eastern China and ROC during 2019-2021. Our results highlight the critical need to reduce ozone precursor emissions in the rest regions of China apart from eastern China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqian Ni
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change (ILCEC), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change (ILCEC), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Hailong Wang
- Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington, USA
| | - Huimin Li
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change (ILCEC), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Mengyun Li
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change (ILCEC), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Pinya Wang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change (ILCEC), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Ke Li
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change (ILCEC), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hong Liao
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change (ILCEC), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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Wei J, Li Z, Chen X, Li C, Sun Y, Wang J, Lyapustin A, Brasseur GP, Jiang M, Sun L, Wang T, Jung CH, Qiu B, Fang C, Liu X, Hao J, Wang Y, Zhan M, Song X, Liu Y. Separating Daily 1 km PM 2.5 Inorganic Chemical Composition in China since 2000 via Deep Learning Integrating Ground, Satellite, and Model Data. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:18282-18295. [PMID: 37114869 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c00272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Fine particulate matter (PM2.5) chemical composition has strong and diverse impacts on the planetary environment, climate, and health. These effects are still not well understood due to limited surface observations and uncertainties in chemical model simulations. We developed a four-dimensional spatiotemporal deep forest (4D-STDF) model to estimate daily PM2.5 chemical composition at a spatial resolution of 1 km in China since 2000 by integrating measurements of PM2.5 species from a high-density observation network, satellite PM2.5 retrievals, atmospheric reanalyses, and model simulations. Cross-validation results illustrate the reliability of sulfate (SO42-), nitrate (NO3-), ammonium (NH4+), and chloride (Cl-) estimates, with high coefficients of determination (CV-R2) with ground-based observations of 0.74, 0.75, 0.71, and 0.66, and average root-mean-square errors (RMSE) of 6.0, 6.6, 4.3, and 2.3 μg/m3, respectively. The three components of secondary inorganic aerosols (SIAs) account for 21% (SO42-), 20% (NO3-), and 14% (NH4+) of the total PM2.5 mass in eastern China; we observed significant reductions in the mass of inorganic components by 40-43% between 2013 and 2020, slowing down since 2018. Comparatively, the ratio of SIA to PM2.5 increased by 7% across eastern China except in Beijing and nearby areas, accelerating in recent years. SO42- has been the dominant SIA component in eastern China, although it was surpassed by NO3- in some areas, e.g., Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei region since 2016. SIA, accounting for nearly half (∼46%) of the PM2.5 mass, drove the explosive formation of winter haze episodes in the North China Plain. A sharp decline in SIA concentrations and an increase in SIA-to-PM2.5 ratios during the COVID-19 lockdown were also revealed, reflecting the enhanced atmospheric oxidation capacity and formation of secondary particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Wei
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Zhanqing Li
- Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Science, Earth System Science Interdisciplinary Center, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 20742, United States
| | - Xi Chen
- National Institute of Environmental Health, Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Chi Li
- Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130, United States
| | - Yele Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Boundary Physics and Atmospheric Chemistry, Institute of Atmospheric Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100029, China
| | - Jun Wang
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, Iowa Technology Institute, University of Iowa, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Alexei Lyapustin
- Laboratory for Atmospheres, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Maryland 20771, United States
| | - Guy Pierre Brasseur
- Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg 20146, Germany
- National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado 80307, United States
| | - Mengjiao Jiang
- Max Planck Institute for Meteorology, Hamburg 20146, Germany
- School of Atmospheric Sciences, Chengdu University of Information Technology, Chengdu 610225, China
| | - Lin Sun
- College of Geodesy and Geomatics, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China
| | - Tao Wang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong 999077, China
| | - Chang Hoon Jung
- Department of Health Management, Kyungin Women's University, Incheon 21041, Korea
| | - Bing Qiu
- Civil Aviation Medical Center, Civil Aviation Administration of China, Beijing 100123, China
| | - Cuilan Fang
- Jiulongpo Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Chongqing 400039, China
| | - Xuhui Liu
- Taiyuan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Taiyuan 030015, China
| | - Jinrui Hao
- Taiyuan Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Taiyuan 030015, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Harbin Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Harbin 150010, China
| | - Ming Zhan
- Pudong Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200120, China
| | | | - Yuewei Liu
- Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510080, China
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Liao Z, Lu J, Xie K, Wang Y, Yuan Y. Prediction of Photochemical Properties of Dissolved Organic Matter Using Machine Learning. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:17971-17980. [PMID: 37029743 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c07545] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Apparent quantum yields (Φ) of photochemically produced reactive intermediates (PPRIs) formed by dissolved organic matter (DOM) are vital to element cycles and contaminant fates in surface water. Simultaneous determination of ΦPPRI values from numerous water samples through existing experimental methods is time consuming and ineffective. Herein, machine learning models were developed with a systematic data set including 1329 data points to predict the values of three ΦPPRIs (Φ3DOM*, Φ1O2, and Φ·OH) based on DOM spectral parameters, experimental conditions, and calculation parameters. The best predictive performances for Φ3DOM*, Φ1O2, and Φ·OH were achieved using the CatBoost model, which outperformed the traditional linear regression models. The significances of the wavelength range and spectral parameters on the three ΦPPRI predictions were revealed, suggesting that DOM with lower molecular weight, lower aromatic content, and a more autochthonous portion possessed higher ΦPPRIs. Chain models were constructed by adding the predicted Φ3DOM* as a new feature into the Φ1O2 and Φ·OH models, which consequently improved the predictive performance of Φ1O2 but worsened the Φ·OH prediction likely due to the complex formation pathways of ·OH. Overall, this study offered robust ΦPPRI prediction across interlaboratory differences and provided new insights into the relationship between PPRIs formation and DOM properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyang Liao
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jinrong Lu
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Kunting Xie
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yong Yuan
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Environmental Catalysis and Health Risk Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Institute of Environmental Health and Pollution Control, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
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Wang P, Yang Y, Xue D, Ren L, Tang J, Leung LR, Liao H. Aerosols overtake greenhouse gases causing a warmer climate and more weather extremes toward carbon neutrality. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7257. [PMID: 37945564 PMCID: PMC10636203 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-42891-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023] Open
Abstract
To mitigate climate warming, many countries have committed to achieve carbon neutrality in the mid-21st century. Here, we assess the global impacts of changing greenhouse gases (GHGs), aerosols, and tropospheric ozone (O3) following a carbon neutrality pathway on climate and extreme weather events individually using the Community Earth System Model version 1 (CESM1). The results suggest that the future aerosol reductions significantly contribute to climate warming and increase the frequency and intensity of extreme weathers toward carbon neutrality and aerosol impacts far outweigh those of GHGs and tropospheric O3. It reverses the knowledge that the changing GHGs dominate the future climate changes as predicted in the middle of the road pathway. Therefore, substantial reductions in GHGs and tropospheric O3 are necessary to reach the 1.5 °C warming target and mitigate the harmful effects of concomitant aerosol reductions on climate and extreme weather events under carbon neutrality in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pinya Wang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yang Yang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Daokai Xue
- School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Lili Ren
- College of Environment and Ecology, Jiangsu Open University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jianping Tang
- School of Atmospheric Sciences, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - L Ruby Leung
- Atmospheric Sciences and Global Change Division, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA, USA
| | - Hong Liao
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Atmospheric Environment Monitoring and Pollution Control, Jiangsu Collaborative Innovation Center of Atmospheric Environment and Equipment Technology, Joint International Research Laboratory of Climate and Environment Change, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Information Science and Technology, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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Li Y, Sha Z, Tang A, Goulding K, Liu X. The application of machine learning to air pollution research: A bibliometric analysis. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 257:114911. [PMID: 37154080 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Machine learning (ML) is an advanced computer algorithm that simulates the human learning process to solve problems. With an explosion of monitoring data and the increasing demand for fast and accurate prediction, ML models have been rapidly developed and applied in air pollution research. In order to explore the status of ML applications in air pollution research, a bibliometric analysis was made based on 2962 articles published from 1990 to 2021. The number of publications increased sharply after 2017, comprising approximately 75% of the total. Institutions in China and United States contributed half of all publications with most research being conducted by individual groups rather than global collaborations. Cluster analysis revealed four main research topics for the application of ML: chemical characterization of pollutants, short-term forecasting, detection improvement and optimizing emission control. The rapid development of ML algorithms has increased the capability to explore the chemical characteristics of multiple pollutants, analyze chemical reactions and their driving factors, and simulate scenarios. Combined with multi-field data, ML models are a powerful tool for analyzing atmospheric chemical processes and evaluating the management of air quality and deserve greater attention in future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunzhe Li
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhipeng Sha
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Aohan Tang
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Keith Goulding
- Sustainable Soils and Crops, Rothamsted Research, Harpenden AL5 2JQ, UK
| | - Xuejun Liu
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Farmland Soil Pollution Prevention and Remediation, College of Resources and Environmental Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
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