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Malakar A, Ray C, D'Alessio M, Shields J, Adams C, Stange M, Weber KA, Snow DD. Interplay of legacy irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer inputs to spatial variability of arsenic and uranium within the deep vadose zone. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 897:165299. [PMID: 37419358 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 07/01/2023] [Accepted: 07/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/09/2023]
Abstract
The vadose zone is a reservoir for geogenic and anthropogenic contaminants. Nitrogen and water infiltration can affect biogeochemical processes in this zone, ultimately affecting groundwater quality. In this large-scale field study, we evaluated the input and occurrence of water and nitrogen species in the vadose zone of a public water supply wellhead protection (WHP) area (defined by a 50-year travel time to groundwater for public supply wells) and potential transport of nitrate, ammonium, arsenic, and uranium. Thirty-two deep cores were collected and grouped by irrigation practices: pivot (n = 20), gravity (n = 4) irrigated using groundwater, and non-irrigated (n = 8) sites. Beneath pivot-irrigated sites, sediment nitrate concentrations were significantly (p < 0.05) lower, while ammonium concentrations were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than under gravity sites. The spatial distribution of sediment arsenic and uranium was evaluated against estimated nitrogen and water loading beneath cropland. Irrigation practices were randomly distributed throughout the WHP area and presented a contrasting pattern of sediment arsenic and uranium occurrence. Sediment arsenic correlated with iron (r = 0.32, p < 0.05), uranium negatively correlated to sediment nitrate (r = -0.23, p < 0.05), and ammonium (r = -0.19 p < 0.05). This study reveals that irrigation water and nitrogen influx influence vadose zone geochemistry and mobilization of geogenic contaminants affecting groundwater quality beneath intensive agricultural systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arindam Malakar
- Nebraska Water Center, part of the Robert B. Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute and School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0844, USA.
| | - Chittaranjan Ray
- Nebraska Water Center, part of the Robert B. Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute, 2021 Transformation Drive, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-6204, USA
| | - Matteo D'Alessio
- Nebraska Water Center, part of the Robert B. Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0915, USA
| | - Jordan Shields
- Nebraska Water Center, part of the Robert B. Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute and School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0844, USA
| | - Craig Adams
- Nebraska Water Center, part of the Robert B. Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute and School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0844, USA
| | - Marty Stange
- Hastings Utilities, 1228 N. Denver Avenue, Hastings, NE 68901, USA
| | - Karrie A Weber
- Nebraska Water Center, part of the Robert B. Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute, 2021 Transformation Drive, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588-6204, USA; School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Lincoln, NE, USA; Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Daniel D Snow
- Nebraska Water Center, part of the Robert B. Daugherty Water for Food Global Institute and School of Natural Resources, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68583-0844, USA.
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Ding Y, Huang X, Zhang H, Ding D. Effects of dissolved organic matter molecules on the sequestration and stability of uranium during the transformation of Fe (oxyhydr)oxides. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 229:119387. [PMID: 36459895 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.119387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Amorphous ferrihydrite (Fh) is abundant in aquatic environments and sediments, and often coprecipitates with dissolved organic matter (DOM) to form mineral-organic aggregates. The Fe(II)-catalyzed transformation of Fh to crystalline Fe (oxyhydr)oxides (e.g., goethite) can result in the changes of uranium (U) species, but the effects of DOM molecules on the sequestration and stability of U during Fe (oxyhydr)oxides transformation are poorly understood. In this study, the associations of DOM molecules with U during the coprecipitation of DOM with Fh were evaluated, and the effects of DOM molecules on the kinetics of U release during Fe (oxyhydr)oxides transformation were investigated using a combination of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR-MS), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), and kinetic experiments. FT-ICR-MS results indicated that, in addition to phenolic and polyphenolic compounds with higher O/C ratios, portions of phenolic compounds with lower O/C ratios and aliphatic compounds were also contributed to UO22+ binding when Fh coprecipitated with DOM. In comparison, phenolic and polyphenolic compounds with higher O/C ratios and condensed aromatics were preferentially retained on Fe (oxyhydr)oxides during the transformation. XPS results further suggested that the coprecipitated DOM molecules facilitated the reduction of U(VI) to U(IV) during the transformation, possibly through providing electrons or acting as electron shuttles. The kinetic experiment results indicated that the transformation processes accelerated U release from Fe (oxyhydr)oxides, but the coprecipitated DOM molecules slowed down U release. Our results contribute to understanding the behaviors of U and predicting the sequestration of U in the environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Ding
- Key Discipline Laboratory for National Defense for Biotechnology in Uranium Mining and Hydrometallurgy, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China; School of Resource & Environment and Safety Engineering, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Xixian Huang
- School of Resource & Environment and Safety Engineering, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China.
| | - Hui Zhang
- Key Discipline Laboratory for National Defense for Biotechnology in Uranium Mining and Hydrometallurgy, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China; School of Resource & Environment and Safety Engineering, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China
| | - Dexin Ding
- Key Discipline Laboratory for National Defense for Biotechnology in Uranium Mining and Hydrometallurgy, University of South China, Hengyang 421001, China; School of Resource & Environment and Safety Engineering, University of South China, Hengyang, Hunan 421001, China.
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Liu Q, Wang N, Xie B, Xiao D. Improved U(VI) electrosorption performance of hierarchical porous heteroatom-doped electrode based on double-template method. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.122866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Payne TE, Waite TD. Uranium adsorption – a review of progress from qualitative understanding to advanced model development. RADIOCHIM ACTA 2022. [DOI: 10.1515/ract-2022-0003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Surface adsorption has a major influence on the environmental mobility of radionuclides, including uranium. Six decades ago, the description of the sorption process relied predominantly on simple descriptive parameters of solid–liquid partitioning (such as Kd values). There have since been numerous systematic investigations of the processes controlling U adsorption, including the affinity of U for different types of geologic materials, the influence of factors such as pH, the effects of complexing ligands, and the role of microorganisms. Mathematical descriptions of sorption processes have adopted various models – including sorption isotherms, surface complexation models and other types of modelling approaches, aided by advances in computational and analytical techniques. In recent years, mechanistic models have incorporated structural insights gained from spectroscopic techniques (such as EXAFS and TRLFS). Throughout the period, the nuclear waste community has sought to develop models for U sorption in complex systems associated with radioactive waste disposal, involving a range of mineral surfaces and incorporating numerous interactions and processes. To some extent, the ongoing questions concerning U adsorption can be considered as being common to many environmental metal contaminants. However, uranium is a unique and significant case, particularly for the radiochemical community, where the long-term behaviour of actinides is a central issue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy E. Payne
- Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation , Locked Bag 2001 , Kirrawee DC , NSW 2232 , Australia
| | - T. David Waite
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales , Sydney , NSW 2052 , Australia
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Liu L, Liu G, Zhou J, Jin R. Interaction between hexavalent chromium and biologically formed iron mineral-biochar composites: Kinetics, products and mechanisms. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 405:124246. [PMID: 33097346 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.124246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 10/08/2020] [Accepted: 10/08/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Biogenic Fe(II) is a dominant natural reductant to convert carcinogenic Cr(VI) to less toxic Cr(III). Field-applied biochar could promote microbial production of Fe(II) and form iron-biochar composites. Although there have been mounting research on the interactions of biochar or Fe(II) with Cr(VI), their coupling effects on Cr(VI) immobilization have been largely neglected. Here, iron mineral-biochar composite (IMBC) was prepared via biochar-mediated dissimilatory reduction of ferrihydrite or goethite by Shewanella oneidensis MR-1, and its reaction with Cr(VI) was investigated. IMBC was able to effectively remove aqueous Cr(VI) via reductive transformation by adsorbed Fe(II). The removal process nicely followed pseudo-second-order kinetics and Langmuir isotherm model. The removal ability of IMBC decreased with increasing pH (5.5-8.0) but was independent of ionic strength changes (0-100 mM). After reaction, the Fe-Cr coprecipitates formed on IMBC exhibited slightly higher Fe/Cr ratios (0.93-0.96) than those on corresponding iron mineral controls (0.88-0.94). For IMBC, while the presence of biochar decreased the reactivity of adsorbed Fe(II), their removal capacities were ~30% higher than those of iron minerals alone, due to the enhanced yields of adsorbed Fe(II). These findings improved our knowledge of interactions among biochar, iron mineral and iron-reducing bacteria and their contribution to chromium immobilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lecheng Liu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Guangfei Liu
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China; Key Laboratory of Eco-restoration of Regional Contaminated Environment, Shenyang University, Shenyang 110000, China.
| | - Jiti Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Ruofei Jin
- Key Laboratory of Industrial Ecology and Environmental Engineering (Ministry of Education), School of Environmental Science and Technology, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
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Xu L, Zhang D, Ma F, Zhang J, Khayambashi A, Cai Y, Chen L, Xiao C, Wang S. Nano-MOF + Technique for Efficient Uranyl Remediation. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2019; 11:21619-21626. [PMID: 31140771 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b06068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The nano-MOF+ technique was employed by assembling nanoporous metal-organic framework (MOF) UiO-66 with nanoscale zero-valent iron (ZVI) particles to remove uranyl ions from aqueous solution under anoxic condition for the first time. The synthesized composite of Fe0@UiO-66-COOH exhibits a synergic effect between uranyl sorption by MOF host of UiO-66-COOH and chemical reduction by ZVI, reaching much elevated removal capacity and rate in comparison to those of the pristine UiO-66-COOH. The combined complexation and reduction mechanisms are further elucidated by the synchrotron radiation X-ray absorption near-edge structure analysis. This work highlights the bright future of the nano-MOF+ technique in the application of uranium removal, especially for the remediation of the uranium-contaminated subsurface environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions , Soochow University , 199 Ren'ai Road , Suzhou 215123 , China
| | - Duo Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions , Soochow University , 199 Ren'ai Road , Suzhou 215123 , China
| | - Fuyin Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions , Soochow University , 199 Ren'ai Road , Suzhou 215123 , China
| | - Jiarong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions , Soochow University , 199 Ren'ai Road , Suzhou 215123 , China
| | - Afshin Khayambashi
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions , Soochow University , 199 Ren'ai Road , Suzhou 215123 , China
| | - Yawen Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions , Soochow University , 199 Ren'ai Road , Suzhou 215123 , China
| | - Lanhua Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions , Soochow University , 199 Ren'ai Road , Suzhou 215123 , China
| | - Chengliang Xiao
- College of Chemical and Biological Engineering , Zhejiang University , 38 Zheda Road , Hangzhou 310027 , China
| | - Shuao Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences (RAD-X) and Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions , Soochow University , 199 Ren'ai Road , Suzhou 215123 , China
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Singh J, Yadav D, Singh JD. En Route Activity of Hydration Water Allied with Uranyl (UO 22+) Salts Amid Complexation Reactions with an Organothio-Based (O, N, S) Donor Base. Inorg Chem 2019; 58:4972-4978. [PMID: 30950271 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.8b03622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study provides en route activity of hydration water allied with uranyl salts amid complexation reactions with a donor species L bearing O, N, and S (phenolic, -OH; imine, -HC═N-; and thio-, -S-) donor functionalities. The UO22+/L reaction encounters a series of hydrolytic steps with hydration water released from uranyl salts during the complexation processes. Primarily, the coordinated [L(-HC=N)(OH)(-HC=N) → UO2(NO3)2/(OAc)2] species formed during the complexation process undergoes partial hydrolysis of the coordinated ligand resulting in the isolation of an aldehyde coordinated uranyl species [L(-HC=N)(OH)(-HC=O) → UO2(NO3)2/(OAc)2]. The influence of hydration water continued as the reaction further proceeded to the next stage resulting in alteration of the aldehyde coordinated uranyl species [L(-HC=N)(OH)(-HC=O) → UO2(NO3)2/(OAc)2] to an oxidized carboxy coordinated uranyl species [L(-HC=N) (OH){-C(═O)O} → (NO3)/(OAc)]2 without the use of any external oxidizing agents. These studies are of particular significance as they allow one to realize the adventitious role of hydration water released from commonly used uranyl salts during their reaction with organic donor substrates in nonaqueous medium. These results also form an experimental basis to understand the critical behavior of UO22+ ion activity (as oxidizing, reducing, or catalytic) relevant in many chemical, biological, and environmental processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jagriti Singh
- Department of Chemistry , Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD) , Hauz Khas , New Delhi 110 016 , India
| | - Dolly Yadav
- Department of Chemistry , Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD) , Hauz Khas , New Delhi 110 016 , India
| | - Jai Deo Singh
- Department of Chemistry , Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IITD) , Hauz Khas , New Delhi 110 016 , India
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8
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Ananthanarayanan A, Songire PP, Khot SA, Sodaye HS, Sanjukta AK, Banerjee D, Shah JG, Agarwal K. Removal of Uranium from waste water by in-situ formation of magnetite from aerobic corrosion of mild steel. SEP SCI TECHNOL 2018. [DOI: 10.1080/01496395.2018.1555596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- A. Ananthanarayanan
- Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Pallavi P. Songire
- Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
| | - S. A. Khot
- Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
| | - H. S. Sodaye
- Desalination Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai
| | - A. K. Sanjukta
- Analytical Chemistry Division, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai
| | - D. Banerjee
- Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
| | - J. G. Shah
- Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
| | - Kailash Agarwal
- Nuclear Recycle Group, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, Trombay, Mumbai, India
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Avasarala S, Lichtner PC, Ali AMS, González-Pinzón R, Blake JM, Cerrato JM. Reactive Transport of U and V from Abandoned Uranium Mine Wastes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:12385-12393. [PMID: 29017012 PMCID: PMC5751750 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b03823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
The reactive transport of uranium (U) and vanadium(V) from abandoned mine wastes collected from the Blue Gap/Tachee Claim-28 mine site in Arizona was investigated by integrating flow-through column experiments with reactive transport modeling, and electron microscopy. The mine wastes were sequentially reacted in flow-through columns at pH 7.9 (10 mM HCO3-) and pH 3.4 (10 mM CH3COOH) to evaluate the effect of environmentally relevant conditions encountered at Blue Gap/Tachee on the release of U and V. The reaction rate constants (km) for the dissolution of uranyl-vanadate (U-V) minerals predominant at Blue Gap/Tachee were obtained from simulations with the reactive transport software, PFLOTRAN. The estimated reaction rate constants were within 1 order of magnitude for pH 7.9 (km = 4.8 × 10-13 mol cm-2 s-1) and pH 3.4 (km = 3.2 × 10-13 mol cm-2 s-1). However, the estimated equilibrium constants (Keq) for U-V bearing minerals were more than 6 orders of magnitude different for reaction at circumneutral pH (Keq = 10-38.65) compared to acidic pH (Keq = 10-44.81). These results coupled with electron microscopy data suggest that the release of U and V is affected by water pH and the crystalline structure of U-V bearing minerals. The findings from this investigation have important implications for risk exposure assessment, remediation, and resource recovery of U and V in locations where U-V-bearing minerals are abundant.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Johanna M. Blake
- Department of Chemistry, MSC03 2060, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, United States
| | - José M. Cerrato
- Department of Civil Engineering, MSC01 1070
- Corresponding AuthorPhone: (001) (505) 277-0870; fax: (001) (505) 277-1918;
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Kinsela AS, Jones AM, Bligh MW, Pham AN, Collins RN, Harrison JJ, Wilsher KL, Payne TE, Waite TD. Influence of Dissolved Silicate on Rates of Fe(II) Oxidation. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:11663-11671. [PMID: 27704793 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b03015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Increasing concentrations of dissolved silicate progressively retard Fe(II) oxidation kinetics in the circum-neutral pH range 6.0-7.0. As Si:Fe molar ratios increase from 0 to 2, the primary Fe(III) oxidation product transitions from lepidocrocite to a ferrihydrite/silica-ferrihydrite composite. Empirical results, supported by chemical kinetic modeling, indicated that the decreased heterogeneous oxidation rate was not due to differences in absolute Fe(II) sorption between the two solids types or competition for adsorption sites in the presence of silicate. Rather, competitive desorption experiments suggest Fe(II) was associated with more weakly bound, outer-sphere complexes on silica-ferrihydrite compared to lepidocrocite. A reduction in extent of inner-sphere Fe(II) complexation on silica-ferrihydrite confers a decreased ability for Fe(II) to undergo surface-induced hydrolysis via electronic configuration alterations, thereby inhibiting the heterogeneous Fe(II) oxidation mechanism. Water samples from a legacy radioactive waste site (Little Forest, Australia) were shown to exhibit a similar pattern of Fe(II) oxidation retardation derived from elevated silicate concentrations. These findings have important implications for contaminant migration at this site as well as a variety of other groundwater/high silicate containing natural and engineered sites that might undergo iron redox fluctuations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew S Kinsela
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- Institute for Environmental Research, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation , Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, New South Wales 2232, Australia
| | - Adele M Jones
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Mark W Bligh
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- Institute for Environmental Research, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation , Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, New South Wales 2232, Australia
| | - An Ninh Pham
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Richard N Collins
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Jennifer J Harrison
- Institute for Environmental Research, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation , Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, New South Wales 2232, Australia
| | - Kerry L Wilsher
- Institute for Environmental Research, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation , Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, New South Wales 2232, Australia
| | - Timothy E Payne
- Institute for Environmental Research, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation , Locked Bag 2001, Kirrawee DC, New South Wales 2232, Australia
| | - T David Waite
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales , Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
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