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Leppanen MT, Sourisseau S, Burgess RM, Simpson SL, Sibley P, Jonker MTO. Sediment Toxicity Tests: A Critical Review of Their use in Environmental Regulations. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2024; 43:1697-1716. [PMID: 38597781 PMCID: PMC11326746 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5861] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/11/2024]
Abstract
Sediments are an integral component of aquatic systems, linking multiple water uses, functions, and services. Contamination of sediments by chemicals is a worldwide problem, with many jurisdictions trying to prevent future pollution (prospective) and manage existing contamination (retrospective). The present review assesses the implementation of sediment toxicity testing in environmental regulations globally. Currently, the incorporation of sediment toxicity testing in regulations is most common in the European Union (EU), North America, and Australasian regions, with some expansion in Asia and non-EU Europe. Employing sediment toxicity testing in prospective assessments (i.e., before chemicals are allowed on the market) is most advanced and harmonized with pesticides. In the retrospective assessment of environmental risks (i.e., chemicals already contaminating sediments), regulatory sediment toxicity testing practices are applied inconsistently on the global scale. International harmonization of sediment toxicity tests is considered an asset and has been successful through the widespread adoption and deployment of Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development guidelines. On the other hand, retrospective sediment assessments benefit from incorporating regional species and protocols. Currently used toxicity testing species are diverse, with temperate species being applied most often, whereas test protocols are insufficiently flexible to appropriately address the range of environmental contaminants, including nanomaterials, highly hydrophobic contaminants, and ionized chemicals. The ever-increasing and -changing pressures placed on aquatic resources are a challenge for protection and management efforts, calling for continuous sediment toxicity test method improvement to insure effective use in regulatory frameworks. Future developments should focus on including more subtle and specific toxicity endpoints (e.g., incorporating bioavailability-based in vitro tests) and genomic techniques, extending sediment toxicity testing from single to multispecies approaches, and providing a better link with ecological protection goals. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:1697-1716. © 2024 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Robert M Burgess
- Atlantic Coastal Environmental Science Division, Office of Research and Development, US Environmental Protection Agency, Narragansett, Rhode Island
| | | | - Paul Sibley
- School of Environmental Sciences, Ontario Agricultural College, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada
| | - Michiel T O Jonker
- Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Gu Y, Li C, Jiang Q, Hua R, Wu X, Xue J. Efficient and practical in-jar silicone rubber based passive sampling for simultaneous monitoring of emerging fungicides in water and soils. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 937:173539. [PMID: 38806130 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2024] [Revised: 05/23/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/30/2024]
Abstract
The occurrence and ecological impacts of emerging fungicides in the environment has gained increasing attention. This study applied an in-jar passive sampling device based on silicone rubber (SR) film to measuring the freely dissolved concentration (Cfree) of 6 current-use fungicides as a critical index of bioavailability in water and soils. The kinetics parameters including SR-water, soil-water, and organic carbon-water partition coefficients and sampling rates of the target fungicides were first attained and characterized well with their physicochemical properties. The in situ and ex situ field deployment in Hefei City provided the assessment of contaminated levels for these fungicides in rivers and soils. The Cfree of triadimefon and azoxystrobin was estimated at 0.54 ± 0.07-17.4 ± 2.5 ng L-1 in Nanfei River and Chao Lake, while triadimefon was only found in Dongpu Reservoir water with Cfree below 0.66 ± 0.04 ng L-1. The results exhibited that the equilibrium duration of 7 d was suitable for water application but a longer interval of 14 d was recommended for soil sampling. This work demonstrated the advantages of the proposed strategy in terms of fast monitoring within 2 weeks and high sensitivity down to detection limits in 0.5-5 ng L-1. The in-jar passive sampling device can be extrapolated to the evaluation for a wide coverage of organic pollutants in water and soils.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Gu
- College of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Agri-food Safety of Anhui Province, Hefei 230036, PR China
| | - Ciyun Li
- College of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Agri-food Safety of Anhui Province, Hefei 230036, PR China
| | - Qingqing Jiang
- College of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Agri-food Safety of Anhui Province, Hefei 230036, PR China
| | - Rimao Hua
- College of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Agri-food Safety of Anhui Province, Hefei 230036, PR China
| | - Xiangwei Wu
- College of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Agri-food Safety of Anhui Province, Hefei 230036, PR China
| | - Jiaying Xue
- College of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Key Laboratory of Agri-food Safety of Anhui Province, Hefei 230036, PR China.
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Gidley PT, Lotufo GR, Schmidt SN, Mayer P, Burgess RM. Quantitative thermodynamic exposure assessment of PCBs available to sandworms ( Alitta virens) in activated carbon remediated sediment during ongoing sediment deposition. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2024; 26:814-823. [PMID: 38345076 PMCID: PMC11179148 DOI: 10.1039/d3em00405h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2024]
Abstract
Marine mesoscale studies with sandworms (Alitta virens) were conducted to isolate important processes governing the exposure and bioaccumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) at contaminated sediment sites. Ex situ equilibrium sampling with silicone-coated jars, and in situ passive sampling with low-density polyethylene (LDPE) were used to determine the performance of an activated carbon (AC) amendment remedy applied to the bed sediment. A quantitative thermodynamic exposure assessment ('QTEA') was performed, showing that PCB concentrations in polymers at equilibrium with the surficial sediment were suited to measure and assess the remedy effectiveness with regard to PCB bioaccumulation in worms. In practice, monitoring the performance of sediment remedies should utilize a consistent and predictive form of polymeric sampling of the sediment. The present study found that ex situ equilibrium sampling of the surficial sediment was the most useful for understanding changes in bioaccumulation potential as a result of the applied remedy, during bioturbation and ongoing sediment and contaminant influx processes. The ultrathin silicone coatings of the ex situ sampling provided fast equilibration of PCBs between the sediment interstitial water and the polymer, and the multiple coating thicknesses were applied to confirm equilibrium and the absence of surface sorption artifacts. Overall, ex situ equilibrium sampling of surficial sediment could fit into existing frameworks as a robust and cost-effective tool for contaminated sediment site assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip T Gidley
- US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA.
| | - Guilherme R Lotufo
- US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA.
| | - Stine N Schmidt
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Environmental & Resource Engineering, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Philipp Mayer
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Environmental & Resource Engineering, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Robert M Burgess
- US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD/NHEERL/Atlantic Ecology Division, Narragansett, RI, USA
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Grundy JS, Lambert MK, Burgess RM. Passive Sampling-Based versus Conventional-Based Metrics for Evaluating Remediation Efficacy at Contaminated Sediment Sites: A Review. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:10151-10172. [PMID: 37364241 PMCID: PMC10404352 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c00232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Passive sampling devices (PSDs) are increasingly used at contaminated sites to improve the characterization of contaminant transport and assessment of ecological and human health risk at sediment sites and to evaluate the effectiveness of remedial actions. The use of PSDs after full-scale remediation remains limited, however, in favor of evaluation based on conventional metrics, such as bulk sediment concentrations or bioaccumulation. This review has three overall aims: (1) identify sites where PSDs have been used to support cleanup efforts, (2) assess how PSD-derived remedial end points compare to conventional metrics, and (3) perform broad semiquantitative and selective quantitative concurrence analyses to evaluate the magnitude of agreement between metrics. Contaminated sediment remedies evaluated included capping, in situ amendment, dredging and monitored natural recovery (MNR). We identify and discuss 102 sites globally where PSDs were used to determine remedial efficacy resulting in over 130 peer-reviewed scientific publications and numerous technical reports and conference proceedings. The most common conventional metrics assessed alongside PSDs in the peer-reviewed literature were bioaccumulation (39%), bulk sediments (40%), toxicity (14%), porewater grab samples (16%), and water column grab samples (16%), while about 25% of studies used PSDs as the sole metric. In a semiquantitative concurrence analysis, the PSD-based metrics agreed with conventional metrics in about 68% of remedy assessments. A more quantitative analysis of reductions in bioaccumulation after remediation (i.e., remediation was successful) showed that decreases in uptake into PSDs agreed with decreases in bioaccumulation (within a factor of 2) 61% of the time. Given the relatively good agreement between conventional and PSD-based metrics, we propose several practices and areas for further study to enhance the utilization of PSDs throughout the remediation of contaminated sediment sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- James S Grundy
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education c/o U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ORD/CEMM, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882, United States
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, OLEM, Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, Edison, New Jersey 08837, United States
| | - Matthew K Lambert
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, OLEM, Office of Superfund Remediation and Technology Innovation, Washington, District of Columbia 20460, United States
| | - Robert M Burgess
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, ORD/CEMM, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, Narragansett, Rhode Island 02882, United States
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Lotufo GR, Michalsen MM, Reible DD, Gschwend PM, Ghosh U, Kennedy AJ, Kerns KM, Rakowska MI, Odetayo A, MacFarlane JK, Yan S, Bokare M. Interlaboratory Study of Polyethylene and Polydimethylsiloxane Polymeric Samplers for Ex Situ Measurement of Freely Dissolved Hydrophobic Organic Compounds in Sediment Porewater. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2022; 41:1885-1902. [PMID: 35512673 PMCID: PMC9545451 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Revised: 12/19/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
We evaluated the precision and accuracy of multilaboratory measurements for determining freely dissolved concentrations (Cfree ) of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in sediment porewater using polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and low-density polyethylene (LDPE) polymeric samplers. Four laboratories exposed performance reference compound (PRC) preloaded polymers to actively mixed and static ex situ sediment for approximately 1 month; two laboratories had longer exposures (2 and 3 months). For Cfree results, intralaboratory precision was high for single compounds (coefficient of variation 50% or less), and for most PAHs and PCBs interlaboratory variability was low (magnitude of difference was a factor of 2 or less) across polymers and exposure methods. Variability was higher for the most hydrophobic PAHs and PCBs, which were present at low concentrations and required larger PRC-based corrections, and also for naphthalene, likely due to differential volatilization losses between laboratories. Overall, intra- and interlaboratory variability between methods (PDMS vs. LDPE, actively mixed vs. static exposures) was low. The results that showed Cfree polymer equilibrium was achieved in approximately 1 month during active exposures, suggesting that the use of PRCs may be avoided for ex situ analysis using comparable active exposure; however, such ex situ testing may not reflect field conditions. Polymer-derived Cfree concentrations for most PCBs and PAHs were on average within a factor of 2 compared with concentrations in isolated porewater, which were directly measured by one laboratory; difference factors of up to 6 were observed for naphthalene and the most hydrophobic PAHs and PCBs. The Cfree results were similar for academic and private sector laboratories. The accuracy and precision that we demonstrate for determination of Cfree using polymer sampling are anticipated to increase regulatory acceptance and confidence in use of the method. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1885-1902. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC. This article has been contributed to by U.S. Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme R. Lotufo
- Environmental Laboratory, US Army Engineer Research and Development CenterVicksburgMississippiUSA
| | - Mandy M. Michalsen
- Environmental Laboratory, US Army Engineer Research and Development CenterVicksburgMississippiUSA
| | - Danny D. Reible
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction EngineeringTexas Tech UniversityLubbockTexasUSA
| | - Philip M. Gschwend
- Department of Civil and Environmental EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Upal Ghosh
- Department of Chemical, Biochemical, and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of Maryland Baltimore CountyBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Alan J. Kennedy
- Environmental Laboratory, US Army Engineer Research and Development CenterVicksburgMississippiUSA
| | | | - Magdalena I. Rakowska
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction EngineeringTexas Tech UniversityLubbockTexasUSA
| | - Adesewa Odetayo
- Department of Civil, Environmental, and Construction EngineeringTexas Tech UniversityLubbockTexasUSA
| | - John K. MacFarlane
- Department of Civil and Environmental EngineeringMassachusetts Institute of TechnologyCambridgeMassachusettsUSA
| | - Songjing Yan
- Department of Chemical, Biochemical, and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of Maryland Baltimore CountyBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Mandar Bokare
- Department of Chemical, Biochemical, and Environmental EngineeringUniversity of Maryland Baltimore CountyBaltimoreMarylandUSA
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Lotufo GR, Biedenbach JM, Farrar JD, Chanov MK, Hester BW, Warbritton CR, Steevens JA, Netchaev JM, Bednar AJ, Moore DW. Interlaboratory Comparison of Three Sediment Bioaccumulation Tests. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2022; 41:1260-1275. [PMID: 35349191 PMCID: PMC9310598 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Standard bioaccumulation tests are commonly conducted using Macoma nasuta (clam), and Alitta virens (polychaete) for marine tests, and Lumbriculus variegatus (an oligochaete) for freshwater tests. Because the interlaboratory variability associated with these tests is unknown, four experienced laboratories conducted standard 28-day bioaccumulation tests with the above species using sediments contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Chemical analysis of tissue samples was performed by a single laboratory. The intralaboratory variance among replicates was relatively low for PCB tissue concentrations, with coefficients of variation (CVs) ranging from 9% to 28% for all laboratories and species, with the exception of one laboratory reporting higher variability for L. variegatus (CV = 51%). Intralaboratory variance for PCB tissue concentrations was higher than interlaboratory variance for A. virens and L. variegatus, and the magnitude of difference (MOD) for laboratory means ranged from 1.4 to 2.0 across species. Intralaboratory variability was also low for lipid content, and lipid normalization of PCB and PAH body residues generally had little impact on variability. In addition to variability across bioassay laboratories, analytical variability was evaluated by different laboratories measuring the concentration of PCBs and total lipids in a subsample of tissue homogenate of sediment-exposed test organisms. Variability associated with tissue analysis was higher than bioassay laboratory variability only in tests with L. variegatus. Statistical differences between samples may be observed due to the low intralaboratory variability; however, the biological significance of these differences may be limited because the MOD is low. Considering the MOD when comparing bioaccumulation across treatments accounts for uncertainty related to inherent variability of the test in the interpretation of statistically significant results. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1260-1275. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC. This article has been contributed to by US Government employees and their work is in the public domain in the USA.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - J. Daniel Farrar
- US Army Engineer Research and Development CenterVicksburgMississippiUSA
| | | | | | - C. Ryan Warbritton
- US Geological Survey, Columbia Environmental Research CenterColumbiaMissouriUSA
| | - Jeffery A. Steevens
- US Geological Survey, Columbia Environmental Research CenterColumbiaMissouriUSA
| | | | - Anthony J. Bednar
- US Army Engineer Research and Development CenterVicksburgMississippiUSA
| | - David W. Moore
- US Army Engineer Research and Development CenterVicksburgMississippiUSA
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Gidley PT, Lotufo GR, Kennedy AJ, Melby NL, Wooley AH, Laber CH, Burgess RM, Ruiz CE, Bridges TS. Effect of Activated Carbon in Thin Sand Caps Challenged with Ongoing PCB Inputs from Sediment Deposition: PCB Uptake in Clams (Mercenaria mercenaria) and Passive Samplers. ARCHIVES OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2022; 82:95-104. [PMID: 34669000 PMCID: PMC9093667 DOI: 10.1007/s00244-021-00894-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Ongoing inputs, in the form of sediment deposition along with associated dissolved contaminants, have challenged the assessment of cap performance at contaminated sediment sites. To address this issue, thin 2-3 cm layer sand caps amended with activated carbon (AC) were investigated for the remediation of polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) contaminated marine sediments using 90-day mesocosms. All treatments were challenged with (1) ongoing clean or marker-PCB-spiked sediment inputs and (2) bioturbation. Bioaccumulation in hard clams (filter feeding near the cap-water interface) was evaluated to best understand cap effectiveness, relative to sheepshead minnows (confined to the surface water) and sandworms (which burrowed through the caps). All caps (sand and AC amended sand) provided isolation of native bedded PCBs (i.e., PCBs sourced from the bed), reducing uptake in organisms. Total PCB bioaccumulation in clams indicated that AC addition to the cap provided no benefit with spiked influx, or some benefit (56% reduction) with clean influx. Spiked input PCBs, when added to the depositional input sediment, were consistently detected in clams and passive samplers, with and without AC in the cap. PCB uptake by passive samplers located in the caps did not reflect the performance of the remedy, as defined by clam bioaccumulation. However, PCB uptake by passive samplers in the overlying water reasonably represented clam bioaccumulation results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip T Gidley
- Environmental Laboratory, ERDC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS, USA.
| | - Guilherme R Lotufo
- Environmental Laboratory, ERDC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Alan J Kennedy
- Environmental Laboratory, ERDC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Nicolas L Melby
- Environmental Laboratory, ERDC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Allyson H Wooley
- Environmental Laboratory, ERDC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Charles H Laber
- Environmental Laboratory, ERDC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Robert M Burgess
- Office of Research and Development (ORD), National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory (NHEERL), Atlantic Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Narragansett, RI, USA
| | - Carlos E Ruiz
- Environmental Laboratory, ERDC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Todd S Bridges
- Environmental Laboratory, ERDC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS, USA
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Šrédlová K, Cajthaml T. Recent advances in PCB removal from historically contaminated environmental matrices. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 287:132096. [PMID: 34523439 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.132096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 08/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Despite being drastically restricted in the 1970s, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) still belong among the most hazardous contaminants. The chemical stability and dielectric properties of PCBs made them suitable for a number of applications, which then lead to their ubiquitous presence in the environment. PCBs are highly bioaccumulative and persistent, and their teratogenic, carcinogenic, and endocrine-disrupting features have been widely reported in the literature. This review discusses recent advances in different techniques and approaches to remediate historically contaminated matrices, which are one of the most problematic in regard to decontamination feasibility and efficiency. The current knowledge published in the literature shows that PCBs are not sufficiently removed from the environment by natural processes, and thus, the suitability of some approaches (e.g., natural attenuation) is limited. Physicochemical processes are still the most effective; however, their extensive use is constrained by their high cost and often their destructiveness toward the matrices. Despite their limited reliability, biological methods and their application in combinations with other techniques could be promising. The literature reviewed in this paper documents that a combination of techniques differing in their principles should be a future research direction. Other aspects discussed in this work include the incompleteness of some studies. More attention should be given to the evaluation of toxicity during these processes, particularly in terms of monitoring different modes of toxic action. In addition, decomposition mechanisms and products need to be sufficiently clarified before combined, tailor-made approaches can be employed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kamila Šrédlová
- Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 2, 12801, Prague 2, Czech Republic; Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, 14220, Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Cajthaml
- Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 2, 12801, Prague 2, Czech Republic; Institute of Microbiology of the Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, 14220, Prague 4, Czech Republic.
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Ahkola H, Lindholm-Lehto P, Perkola N, Välitalo P, Meriläinen P, Mäenpää K, Stelzer JAA, Heiskanen I, Järvistö J, Nuutinen J, Leppänen MT. A preliminary study on the ecotoxic potency of wastewater treatment plant sludge combining passive sampling and bioassays. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 758:143700. [PMID: 33257078 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.143700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 10/28/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Sewage sludge is an inevitable byproduct produced in wastewater treatment. Reusing nutrient-rich sludge will diminish the amount of waste ending in soil dumping areas and will promote circular economy. However, during sewage treatment process, several potentially harmful organic chemicals are retained in sludge, but proving the safety of processed sludge will promote its more extensive use in agriculture and landscaping. Environmental risk assessment of sludge requires new methods of characterizing its suitability for various circular economy applications. Bioavailable and bioaccessible fractions are key variables indicating leaching, transport, and bioaccumulation capacity. Also, sludge treatments have a significant effect on chemical status and resulting environmental risks. In this study, the concentrations of polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), triclosan (TCS), triclocarban (TCC), methyl triclosan (mTCS), and selected active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) were determined in different sludge treatments and fractions. Passive samplers were used to characterize the bioavailable and bioaccessible fractions, and the sampler extracts along the sludge and filtrate samples were utilized in the bioassays. The TCS and PAH concentrations did not decrease as the sludge was digested, but the contents diminished after composting. Also, mTCS concentration decreased after composting. The API concentrations were lower in digested sludge than in secondary sludge. Digested sludge was toxic for Aliivibrio fischeri, but after composting, toxicity was not observed. However, for Daphnia magna, passive sampler extracts of all sludge treatments were either acutely (immobility) or chronically (reproduction) toxic. Secondary and digested sludge sampler extracts were cytotoxic, and secondary sludge extract was also genotoxic. The measured chemical concentration levels did not explain the toxicity of the samples based on the reported toxicity thresholds. Bioassays and sampler extracts detecting bioavailable and bioaccessible contaminants in sludge are complementing tools for chemical analyses. Harmonization of these methodswill help establish scientifically sound regulative thresholds for the use of sludge in circular economy applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heidi Ahkola
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), P.O.Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Petra Lindholm-Lehto
- Aquatic Production Systems, Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), Survontie 9A, FI-40500 Jyväskylä, Finland; University of Jyväskylä, FI-40500 Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Noora Perkola
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), P.O.Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Pia Välitalo
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), P.O.Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland; Aalto University, Tietotie 1E, FI-02150 Espoo, Finland
| | - Päivi Meriläinen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), P.O.Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland; Finnish Institute for Health and Welfare, P.O.Box 95, FI-70701 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Kimmo Mäenpää
- University of Eastern Finland, Yliopistokatu 2, P.O.Box 111, FI-80101 Joensuu, Finland
| | - Julio Alberto Alegre Stelzer
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), P.O.Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland; University of Geneva, CH-1211 Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ilse Heiskanen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), P.O.Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Johanna Järvistö
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), P.O.Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jari Nuutinen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), P.O.Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Matti T Leppänen
- Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE), P.O.Box 140, FI-00251 Helsinki, Finland
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10
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Schmidt SN, Burgess RM. Evaluating Polymeric Sampling as a Tool for Predicting the Bioaccumulation of Polychlorinated Biphenyls by Fish and Shellfish. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:9729-9741. [PMID: 32585088 PMCID: PMC7478847 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b07292] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Recent research has shown that polymeric sampling data generally can predict the bioaccumulation of hydrophobic organic contaminants by benthic and sessile invertebrates. Based on literature data, this review evaluated polymeric sampling as a tool for predicting the bioaccumulation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) by pelagic and mobile fish and shellfish. Lipid-normalized concentrations (CL) were linked to corresponding equilibrium polymer concentrations (CP) to evaluate the (1) correlation between CL and CP, (2) accuracy when using CP as surrogates for CL, (3) effects of experimental variables on these results, and (4) implications associated with this approach. Generally, strong positive log-log linear correlations existed between CL and CP, meaning that increasing bioaccumulation was well-reflected by increasing polymer accumulation. Further, the majority of the regression lines, as well as individual CL to CP ratios, were within a factor of 10 from the hypothetical 1:1 relationship, suggesting that polymers accumulated concentrations comparable to body residues in fish and shellfish. Interestingly, overall stronger correlations and lower CL to CP ratios resulted when CP were based on sediment compared to water column-deployed samplers. These findings provide a tool for environmental managers when assessing and managing risk associated with PCB-contaminated sediments and waters in protecting vulnerable fish and shellfish species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stine N. Schmidt
- National Research Council, US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, Narragansett, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Robert M. Burgess
- US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, Narragansett, Rhode Island, USA
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Chen Y, Lei YD, Wensvoort J, Wania F. Quantifying the Biomagnification Capability of Arctic Wolf and Domestic Dog by Equilibrium Sampling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:6842-6849. [PMID: 32363860 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c00157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The mechanism underlying contaminant biomagnification is a decrease in the volume (V) and the fugacity capacity (Z) of food during digestion in the gastrointestinal tract. Traditionally, biomagnification is quantified by measuring contaminant concentrations in animal tissues. Here, we present a proof-of-concept study to noninvasively derive the thermodynamic limit to an organism's biomagnification capability (biomagnification limit -BMFlim) by determining the ratio of the V·Z-products of undigested and digested food. We quantify Z-values by equilibrating food and feces samples, which have been homogenized and spiked with polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), with silicone films of variable thickness coated on the inside of glass vials. We demonstrate the feasibility of this method for wolf (Canis lupus hudsonicus) and domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris). For an adult wolf eating a relatively lean meat diet, a BMFlim (averaged over several PCB congeners) of approximately 41 was observed, whereas the BMFlim reached 81 for an adult domestic dog eating a lipid-rich diet. Besides the dietary lipid content that strongly affects the Z-value of the diet, the capability of an animal to digest its diet also influences the BMFlim by controlling the Z-values of their feces and the volume reduction of the food in the gastrointestinal tract. Less efficient digestion leads to a lower BMFlim in a juvenile dog (approximately 35) compared to its older self, even though their diets had similar lipid contents. The effect of the volume reduction (VD/VF ranging from 4 to 15) was comparable to the effect of the Z-value reduction (ZD/ZF from 3 to 20).
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhao Chen
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M1C 1A4
| | - Ying Duan Lei
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M1C 1A4
| | - Jaap Wensvoort
- Nutrition Science, Toronto Zoo, 361A Old Finch Avenue, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M1B 5K7
| | - Frank Wania
- Department of Chemistry and Department of Physical and Environmental Sciences, University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M1C 1A4
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12
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Joyce AS, Fernandez LA, Burgess RM. In Situ Investigation of Performance Reference Compound-Based Estimates of PCB Equilibrated Passive Sampler Concentrations and C free in the Marine Water Column. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2020; 39:1165-1173. [PMID: 32187698 PMCID: PMC7307426 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Revised: 02/28/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Low-density polyethylene sheets are used as passive samplers for aquatic environmental monitoring to measure the freely dissolved concentration (Cfree ) of hydrophobic organic contaminants (HOCs). Freely dissolved HOCs in water will partition into the polyethylene until a thermodynamic equilibrium is achieved; that is, the HOC's activity in the passive sampler is the same as its activity in the surrounding environment. One way to evaluate the equilibrium status or estimate the uptake kinetics is by using performance reference compounds (PRCs). A fractional equilibrium (feq ) can be determined for target HOCs, under the assumption that PRC desorption from the passive sampler occurs at the same rate as for the unlabeled target HOCs. However, few investigations have evaluated how effectively and accurately PRCs estimate target contaminant Cfree under in situ conditions. In the present study, polyethylene passive samplers were preloaded with 6 13 C-labeled polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) as PRCs; deployed in New Bedford Harbor, Massachusetts, USA; and collected after 30-, 56-, 99-, and 129-d deployments. Using this unique temporal sampling design, PRC results from each deployment were fit to a diffusion model to estimate the Cfree of 27 PCB congeners and compare the results between the different deployment times. Smaller PCBs had variable concentrations over the 4 deployments, whereas mid-molecular weight PCBs had consistent Cfree measurements for all deployments (relative standard deviation <20%). High-molecular weight PCBs had the largest Cfree estimates after 30 d; these estimates and their standard deviations decreased with longer deployment times. These findings suggest that when targeting PCBs with more than 6 chlorines or contaminants with a log octanol-water partition coefficient ≥6.5, a deployment time longer than 30 d may be prudent. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:1165-1173. © 2020 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail S Joyce
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, USA
| | - Loretta A Fernandez
- Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Robert M Burgess
- Office of Research and Development/Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, Atlantic Coastal Environmental Sciences Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Narragansett, Rhode Island
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13
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Vitale CM, Knudsmark Sjøholm K, Di Guardo A, Mayer P. Accelerated equilibrium sampling of hydrophobic organic chemicals in solid matrices: A proof of concept on how to reach equilibrium for PCBs within 1 day. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 237:124537. [PMID: 31551203 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124537] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Revised: 07/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Equilibrium sampling of hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOCs) is increasingly used to measure freely dissolved concentrations and chemical activities in sediments and soils. However, for the most hydrophobic chemicals (Log Kow > 6) such equilibrium sampling requires often very long sampling times in the order of weeks to months. The aim of the present study was to explore two strategies for markedly increasing the HOC mass transfer from matrix to sampler with the overall goal to shorten equilibration times down to a few hours. Two Solid Phase Microextraction (SPME) approaches were thus developed and tested in sediment and soil contaminated by polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). In the first method, the SPME fiber was immersed directly in the aqueous suspension of the sample under vigorous agitation. In the second method equilibration took place via the headspace and was accelerated by elevating the temperature. Headspace-SPME at 80 °C provided fast equilibration within approximately 2 h without contacting the sample and thus avoiding fiber fouling. Both SPME methods were calibrated by passive dosing from preloaded silicone rods and yielded similar results, supporting the validity of HS-SPME at elevated temperatures on a proof of principle level. Finally, by using 13C labelled PCB standards, total concentrations were simultaneously measured, which in turn allowed calculation of matrix-water distribution coefficients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Maria Vitale
- University of Insubria, Department of Science and High Technology, Como, 22100, Italy; Technical University of Denmark, Department of Environmental Engineering, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark.
| | - Karina Knudsmark Sjøholm
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Environmental Engineering, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark; University of Copenhagen, Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Frederiksberg, C 1871, Denmark.
| | - Antonio Di Guardo
- University of Insubria, Department of Science and High Technology, Como, 22100, Italy.
| | - Philipp Mayer
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Environmental Engineering, Kongens Lyngby, 2800, Denmark.
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14
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Gidley PT, Kennedy AJ, Lotufo GR, Wooley AH, Melby NL, Ghosh U, Burgess RM, Mayer P, Fernandez LA, Schmidt SN, Wang AP, Bridges TS, Ruiz CE. Bioaccumulation in Functionally Different Species: Ongoing Input of PCBs with Sediment Deposition to Activated Carbon Remediated Bed Sediments. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2019; 38:2326-2336. [PMID: 31233239 PMCID: PMC6993789 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Activated carbon-amended bed sediments reduced total polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) accumulation in 3 functionally different marine species, sandworms (Alitta virens), hard clams (Mercenaria mercenaria), and sheepshead minnows (Cyprinodon variegatus), during both clean and contaminated ongoing sediment inputs. Mesocosm experiments were conducted for 90 d to evaluate native, field-aged bed sediment PCBs, and ongoing input PCBs added 3 times a week. Simulated in situ remediation applied an activated carbon dose equal to the native organic carbon content that was premixed into the bed sediment for 1 mo. The highest bioaccumulation of native PCBs was in worms that remained in and directly ingested the sediment, whereas the highest bioaccumulation of the input PCBs was in fish that were exposed to the water column. When periodic PCB-contaminated sediment inputs were introduced to the water column, the activated carbon remedy had minimal effect on the input PCBs, whereas the native bed PCBs still dominated bioaccumulation in the control (no activated carbon). Therefore, remediation of only the local bedded sediment in environmental systems with ongoing contaminant inputs may have lower efficacy for fish and other pelagic and epibenthic organisms. While ongoing inputs continue to obscure remedial outcomes at contaminated sediment sites, the present study showed clear effectiveness of activated carbon amendment remediation on native PCBs despite these inputs but no remediation effectiveness for the input-associated PCBs (at least within the present study duration). Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:2326-2336. Published 2019 Wiley Periodicals Inc. on behalf of SETAC. This article is a US government work and, as such, is in the public domain in the United States of America.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip T. Gidley
- US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Alan J. Kennedy
- US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Guilherme R. Lotufo
- US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA
- CORRESPONDING AUTHOR:
| | - Allyson H. Wooley
- US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Nicolas L. Melby
- US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Upal Ghosh
- Sediment Solutions, Ellicott City, MD, USA
| | - Robert M. Burgess
- US Environmental Protection Agency, ORD/NHEERL/Atlantic Ecology Division, Narragansett, RI, USA
| | - Philipp Mayer
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Environmental Engineering, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Loretta A. Fernandez
- Northeastern University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Stine N. Schmidt
- Technical University of Denmark, Department of Environmental Engineering, Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Alice P. Wang
- Northeastern University, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Todd S. Bridges
- US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA
| | - Carlos E. Ruiz
- US Army Corps of Engineers, Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA
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15
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Sinche FL, Lotufo GR, Landrum P, Lydy MJ. Can Tenax Extraction Be Used as a Surrogate Exposure Metric for Laboratory-Based Bioaccumulation Tests Using Marine Sediments? ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2019; 38:1188-1197. [PMID: 30790349 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2018] [Revised: 01/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The Tenax technique was used as an alternative exposure metric to assess the bioavailability of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) from contaminated marine sediments. The sediments used were collected from 2 Superfund sites, New Bedford Harbor (MA, USA) and Gould Island (RI, USA). No sieving was conducted for either sediment after arrival, and sediments were stored in stainless steel drums at 2.8 to 4.0 °C in the dark until use. Exhaustive chemical extractions, single-point 24-h Tenax extractions, and 14-d bioaccumulation tests using the amphipod Leptocheirus plumulosus were conducted for both sediments. The sum of 119 PCB congeners from total exhaustive chemical extraction in the New Bedford Harbor and Gould Island sediments were 1084 and 188.2 µg/g organic carbon, respectively. The PCB concentrations from the bioaccumulation tests and Tenax extractions showed that both exposure metrics followed a similar trend in amount and distribution of PCB congeners. The results from both exposure metrics were fit into a log-log linear regression, and then compared with a previously developed log-log linear model for freshwater organisms. The results showed that although the marine data fell within the prediction intervals of the freshwater linear model, the marine regression followed a lower trajectory due to the differences in both the slopes and intercepts between the marine and freshwater regressions. The present study showed a strong relationship between Tenax and marine invertebrate PCB concentrations. Environ Toxicol Chem 2019;38:1188-1197. © 2019 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico L Sinche
- Department of Zoology, Center for Fisheries, Aquaculture, and Aquatic Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, USA
| | - Guilherme R Lotufo
- US Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA
| | - Peter Landrum
- Department of Zoology, Center for Fisheries, Aquaculture, and Aquatic Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, USA
| | - Michael J Lydy
- Department of Zoology, Center for Fisheries, Aquaculture, and Aquatic Sciences, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois, USA
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16
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Jahnke A, Sobek A, Bergmann M, Bräunig J, Landmann M, Schäfer S, Escher BI. Emerging investigator series: effect-based characterization of mixtures of environmental pollutants in diverse sediments. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2018; 20:1667-1679. [PMID: 30346461 DOI: 10.1039/c8em00401c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated whether cell-based bioassays were suitable to characterize profiles of mixture effects of hydrophobic pollutants in multiple sediments covering remote Arctic and tropical sites to highly populated sites in Europe and Australia. The total contamination was determined after total solvent extraction and the bioavailable contamination after silicone-based passive equilibrium sampling. In addition to cytotoxicity, we observed specific responses in cell-based reporter gene bioassays: activation of metabolic enzymes (arylhydrocarbon receptor: AhR, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma: PPARγ) and adaptive stress responses (oxidative stress response: AREc32). No mixture effects were found for effects on the estrogen, androgen, progesterone and glucocorticoid receptors, or they were masked by cytotoxicity. The bioanalytical equivalent concentrations (BEQ) spanned several orders of magnitude for each bioassay. The bioavailable BEQs (passive equilibrium sampling) typically were 10-100 times and up to 420 times lower than the total BEQ (solvent extraction) for the AhR and AREc32 assays, indicating that the readily desorbing fraction of the bioactive chemicals was substantially lower than the fraction bound strongly to the sediment sorptive phases. Contrarily, the bioavailable BEQ in the PPARγ assay was within a factor of five of the total BEQ. We identified several hotspots of contamination in Europe and established background contamination levels in the Arctic and Australia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annika Jahnke
- Department of Cell Toxicology, Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstr. 15, DE-04318 Leipzig, Germany.
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17
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Bartolomé N, Hilber I, Schulin R, Mayer P, Witt G, Reininghaus M, Bucheli TD. Comparison of freely dissolved concentrations of PAHs in contaminated pot soils under saturated and unsaturated water conditions. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 644:835-843. [PMID: 30743881 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.06.359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2018] [Revised: 06/28/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Passive sampling (PS, equally used for passive sampler) methods have successfully been applied in situ to quantify the bioavailability of hydrophobic organic compounds in air, water and sediments. However, very little is known on the applicability of PS in unsaturated soils. Here, we present the results of a greenhouse experiment in which we applied in situ PS methods in pots. Low density polyethylene (LDPE) and polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) fibres with a newly developed PS holder were used to analyse freely dissolved polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations (Cfree) in a skeet shooting range soil and an uncontaminated control soil under water saturated and unsaturated conditions for up to nine months. A short exposure time of three months was not sufficient for the PDMS samplers to reach distribution equilibrium with the surrounding soil. Under saturated water conditions, the in situ results agreed well with measurements obtained from the conventional ex situ soil suspension method. They were in accordance with similar comparisons made in previous studies on sediments, as well as with model predictions. However, for unsaturated water conditions, the results differed considerably from the ex situ Cfree values, in particular for the light molecular weight (LMW) PAHs such as phenanthrene, fluoranthene, and pyrene. The results of the two in situ PS methods were in good agreement with each other under both soil water conditions, indicating that dissipation mechanisms, such as degradation or volatilization, led to a substantial decrease in Cfree under unsaturated conditions, especially for the LMW PAHs (log10KOW < 5.85) over a period of six months or more. Thus, in their current state of development, in situ PS methods can be used in soils under water-saturated conditions. However, an adequate method to correct for non-equilibrium conditions needs to be developed before they can be applied to unsaturated conditions, mainly for LMW PAHs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Bartolomé
- Agroscope, Environmental Analytics, Reckenholzstrasse 191, 8046 Zurich, Switzerland; Department of Environmental Systems Sciences, ETH Zurich, Universitätsstrasse 16, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Isabel Hilber
- Agroscope, Environmental Analytics, Reckenholzstrasse 191, 8046 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Rainer Schulin
- Department of Environmental Systems Sciences, ETH Zurich, Universitätsstrasse 16, 8092 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Mayer
- Technical University of Denmark, 2800, Kongens, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Gesine Witt
- University of Applied Science Hamburg, D-21033 Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Thomas D Bucheli
- Agroscope, Environmental Analytics, Reckenholzstrasse 191, 8046 Zurich, Switzerland.
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18
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Sjoeholm KK, Schmidt SN, Jahnke A, Svensmark B, Mayer P. Equilibrium sampling reveals increasing thermodynamic potential of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during sewage sludge digestion. CHEMOSPHERE 2018; 207:421-429. [PMID: 29807341 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.05.104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2017] [Revised: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The reuse of digested sludge from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as soil fertilizer poses a risk for contamination of soil and water environments. The present study provides a new approach for investigating the exposure of hydrophobic organic chemicals in sewage sludge. The methodology of equilibrium sampling with multiple thicknesses of silicone was successfully validated and applied to complex sludge matrices. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) concentrations in silicone (Csilicone) were determined and compared across four WWTPs. Activity ratios (ARs), defined as Csilicone at equilibrium with digested sludge (final product) over Csilicone at equilibrium with secondary sludge (intermediate product), were in the range 0.85-20 with all except one AR>1. These ARs thus revealed increased thermodynamic potential of both parent and alkylated PAHs in digested sludge compared with secondary sludge, and thereby higher exposure of PAHs in sludge after digestion than before digestion. This observation can be explained by the concept of "solvent depletion" as organic matter decreased by a factor of 1.3 during digestion, resulting in reduced sorptive capacity and increased freely dissolved concentrations (Cfree). The PAHs with logKow > 6 had ARs close to 1.3, whereas PAHs with logKow < 6 showed higher ARs than the organic matter decrease factor of 1.3. Cfree in digested sludge were higher than reported in rural soil and generally consistent with levels reported for Baltic Sea sediment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina K Sjoeholm
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet B115, DK-2800, Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark; Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
| | - Stine N Schmidt
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet B115, DK-2800, Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark; Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
| | - Annika Jahnke
- Department of Cell Toxicology, Helmholtz Center for Environmental Research GmbH - UFZ, Permoserstraβe 15, DE-04318, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Bo Svensmark
- Department of Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Thorvaldsensvej 40, DK-1871, Frederiksberg, Denmark.
| | - Philipp Mayer
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Bygningstorvet B115, DK-2800, Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark.
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