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Peritore AF, Gugliandolo E, Cuzzocrea S, Crupi R, Britti D. Current Review of Increasing Animal Health Threat of Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances (PFAS): Harms, Limitations, and Alternatives to Manage Their Toxicity. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:11707. [PMID: 37511474 PMCID: PMC10380748 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241411707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Perfluorinated and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS), more than 4700 in number, are a group of widely used man-made chemicals that accumulate in living things and the environment over time. They are known as "forever chemicals" because they are extremely persistent in our environment and body. Because PFAS have been widely used for many decades, their presence is evident globally, and their persistence and potential toxicity create concern for animals, humans and environmental health. They can have multiple adverse health effects, such as liver damage, thyroid disease, obesity, fertility problems, and cancer. The most significant source of living exposure to PFAS is dietary intake (food and water), but given massive industrial and domestic use, these substances are now punctually present not only domestically but also in the outdoor environment. For example, livestock and wildlife can be exposed to PFAS through contaminated water, soil, substrate, air, or food. In this review, we have analyzed and exposed the characteristics of PFAS and their various uses and reported data on their presence in the environment, from industrialized to less populated areas. In several areas of the planet, even in areas far from large population centers, the presence of PFAS was confirmed, both in marine and terrestrial animals (organisms). Among the most common PFAS identified are undoubtedly perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), two of the most widely used and, to date, among the most studied in terms of toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics. The objective of this review is to provide insights into the toxic potential of PFAS, their exposure, and related mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Enrico Gugliandolo
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Salvatore Cuzzocrea
- Department of Chemical, Biological, Pharmaceutical and Environmental Science, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
- Department of Pharmacological and Physiological Science, School of Medicine, Saint Louis University, Saint Louis, MO 63103, USA
| | - Rosalia Crupi
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Messina, 98166 Messina, Italy
| | - Domenico Britti
- Department of Health Sciences, Campus Universitario "Salvatore Venuta" Viale Europa, "Magna Græcia University" of Catanzaro, 88100 Catanzaro, Italy
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Peris A, Baos R, Martínez A, Sergio F, Hiraldo F, Eljarrat E. Pesticide contamination of bird species from Doñana National Park (southwestern Spain): Temporal trends (1999-2021) and reproductive impacts. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2023; 323:121240. [PMID: 36758927 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Doñana National Park (DNP) is a protected area renowned for hosting a wide variety of birds. However, the agricultural practices in its surroundings might cause pesticide contamination of the park biota. This work aimed to assess temporal trends of a wide variety of pesticides, including organochlorine (OCPs), organophosphate (OPPs) and pyrethroid (PYRs) pesticides, in bird eggs collected for more than twenty years (1999-2021) in DNP. Twenty-six pesticides were detected, being 4,4'-DDE the most frequently detected and also the one with the highest concentrations (up to 2.55 μg g-1 ww), exceeding in some cases the values usually reported to cause detrimental health and reproductive effects in avian species. An overall decreasing trend of OCPs was observed. In contrast, an apparent increase in PYRs was detected from 2013 onwards, especially for fenvalerate, whose median concentration was 3-5 orders of magnitude higher in the most recent samples. Moreover, other pesticides such as oxadiazon, oxyfluorfen and fenitrothion were first detected in 2021 samples. Finally, two variables estimating the cumulative impact of pesticides significantly decreased the breeding performance of a top predator such as the booted eagle. Therefore, it is essential to control the use of pesticides in the agricultural practices surrounding DNP and to study their potential negative impact on the bird populations breeding in this protected area.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Peris
- Environmental and Water Chemistry for Human Health (ONHEALTH), Dep. of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain
| | - R Baos
- Department of Conservation Biology, Doñana Biological Station (EBD-CSIC), C/Américo Vespucio S/n, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
| | - A Martínez
- Natural Procesess Monitoring Team, Doñana Biological Station (EBD-CSIC), C/Américo Vespucio S/n, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
| | - F Sergio
- Department of Conservation Biology, Doñana Biological Station (EBD-CSIC), C/Américo Vespucio S/n, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
| | - F Hiraldo
- Department of Conservation Biology, Doñana Biological Station (EBD-CSIC), C/Américo Vespucio S/n, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
| | - E Eljarrat
- Environmental and Water Chemistry for Human Health (ONHEALTH), Dep. of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034, Barcelona, Spain.
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3
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Aker A, Ayotte P, Caron-Beaudoin É, De Silva A, Ricard S, Lemire M. Associations between dietary profiles and perfluoroalkyl acids in Inuit youth and adults. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 857:159557. [PMID: 36272489 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs), a subset of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), are synthetic chemicals used in industrial and consumer applications. They are exceptionally stable and highly mobile in the environment, and were detected in high concentrations in Arctic wildlife and Nunavik Inuit. The study's objective was to study the association between dietary profiles in Nunavik and plasma PFAAs concentrations. METHODS The study used data from the Qanuilirpitaa? 2017 Nunavik Inuit Health Survey (Q2017) (N = 1172) on Inuit adults aged 16-80 years. Nine PFAAs congeners were measured in plasma samples (six were detected). Dietary profiles were identified using latent profile analysis. Two sets of dietary profiles were included; the first included market (store-bought) and country foods (harvested/hunted from the land), and the second included only country foods. Multiple linear regression models regressed log-transformed PFAAs concentrations against the dietary profiles, adjusting for sociodemographic variables. RESULTS We identified statistically significant 24.54-57.55 % increases in all PFAAs congeners (PFOA, PFNA, PFDA, PFUnDA, PFHxS, and PFOS) in the dietary profile defined by frequent country food consumption compared to the dietary profile defined by frequent market food consumption. Individuals defined by low consumption of foods (related to food insecurity) had higher concentrations of six PFAAs compared to individuals with frequent market food consumption. The associations were stronger with profiles defined by more frequent country food consumption, and particularly those with increased marine mammal consumption. PFDA, PFUnDA, and PFOS were particularly associated with high country food consumption frequency, such that their concentrations increased by approximately 67-83 % compared to those reporting no or very little consumption of any country foods. CONCLUSIONS Increased country food consumption was strongly associated with higher PFAAs concentrations, particularly PFOS, PFDA, and PFUnDA. The results provide further evidence that the quality of country foods is being threatened by PFAAs contamination. Additional national and international regulations are required to protect the Arctic and its inhabitants from these pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amira Aker
- Axe santé des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec, Quebec, Canada; Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, Québec, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Pierre Ayotte
- Axe santé des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec, Quebec, Canada; Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, Québec, Quebec, Canada; Centre de Toxicologie du Québec, Institut National de Santé Publique du Québec, Québec, Canada
| | - Élyse Caron-Beaudoin
- Department of Health and Society University of Toronto Scarborough, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Amila De Silva
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Water Science Technology Directorate, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada
| | - Sylvie Ricard
- Nunavik Regional Board of Health and Social Services, Kuujjuaq, QC, Canada
| | - Mélanie Lemire
- Axe santé des populations et pratiques optimales en santé, Centre de recherche du CHU de Québec-Université Laval, Québec, Quebec, Canada; Département de médecine sociale et préventive, Université Laval, Québec, Quebec, Canada; Institut de biologie intégrative et des systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Quebec, Quebec, Canada
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Bustnes JO, Bårdsen BJ, Herzke D, Bangjord G, Bollinger E, Bourgeon S, Schulz R, Fritsch C, Eulaers I. The impact of climate sensitive factors on the exposure to organohalogenated contaminants in an aquatic bird exploiting both marine and freshwater habitats. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 850:157667. [PMID: 35907551 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Revised: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
To assess how climate-sensitive factors may affect the exposure to organochlorines (OCs) and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), we monitored concentrations in eggs of the common goldeneye (Bucephala clangula) over two decades (1999-2019) in central Norway. The goldeneye alternates between marine and freshwater habitats and is sensitive to climate variation, especially due to alterations in ice conditions which may affect feeding conditions. We assessed how biological factors such as diet (stable isotopes δ13C and δ15N), the onset of egg laying, and physical characteristics such as winter climate (North Atlantic Oscillation: NAOw) influenced exposure. We predicted compounds to show different temporal trends depending on whether they were still in production (i.e. some PFASs) or have been banned (i.e. legacy OCs and some PFASs). Therefore, we controlled for potential temporal trends in all analyses. There were declining trends for α- and γ-hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), oxychlordane, cis-chlordane, cis-nonachlor, p,p'-dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (p.p'-DDT) and less persistent polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners (e.g. PCB101). In contrast, the dominant compounds, such as p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) and persistent PCB congeners, were stable, whereas hexachlorobenzene (HCB) increased over time. Most OCs were positively related to δ15N, suggesting higher exposure in birds feeding at upper trophic levels. Chlordanes and HCB were positively associated with δ13C, indicating traces of marine input for these compounds, whereas the relationships to most PCBs were negative. Among PFASs, perfluorooctanesulfonamide (PFOSA) and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) declined. Most PFASs were positively associated with δ13C, whereas there were no associations with δ15N. Egg laying date was positively associated to perfluoroheptanesulfonic acid (PFHpS), perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), suggesting that some of the PFAS load originated from the wintering locations. Although NAOw had little impact on the exposure to organohalogenated contaminants, factors sensitive to climate change, especially diet, were associated with the exposure to OHCs in goldeneyes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Ove Bustnes
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), The Fram Centre, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway.
| | - Bård-Jørgen Bårdsen
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), The Fram Centre, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Dorte Herzke
- Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), The Fram Centre, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway; The Arctic University of Norway, Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | | | - Eric Bollinger
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, DE-76829 Landau, Germany
| | - Sophie Bourgeon
- The Arctic University of Norway, Department of Arctic and Marine Biology, N-9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Ralf Schulz
- iES Landau, Institute for Environmental Sciences, University of Koblenz-Landau, DE-76829 Landau, Germany
| | - Clementine Fritsch
- UMR Chrono-environnement 6249 CNRS - University of Franche-Comté, F-25030 Besançon Cedex, France
| | - Igor Eulaers
- Norwegian Polar Institute, The Fram Centre, N-9296 Tromsø, Norway
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Borgå K, McKinney MA, Routti H, Fernie KJ, Giebichenstein J, Hallanger I, Muir DCG. The influence of global climate change on accumulation and toxicity of persistent organic pollutants and chemicals of emerging concern in Arctic food webs. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2022; 24:1544-1576. [PMID: 35179539 DOI: 10.1039/d1em00469g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This review summarizes current understanding of how climate change-driven physical and ecological processes influence the levels of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and contaminants of emerging Arctic concern (CEACs) in Arctic biota and food webs. The review also highlights how climate change may interact with other stressors to impact contaminant toxicity, and the utility of modeling and newer research tools in closing knowledge gaps on climate change-contaminant interactions. Permafrost thaw is influencing the concentrations of POPs in freshwater ecosystems. Physical climate parameters, including climate oscillation indices, precipitation, water salinity, sea ice age, and sea ice quality show statistical associations with POPs concentrations in multiple Arctic biota. Northward range-shifting species can act as biovectors for POPs and CEACs into Arctic marine food webs. Shifts in trophic position can alter POPs concentrations in populations of Arctic species. Reductions in body condition are associated with increases in levels of POPs in some biota. Although collectively understudied, multiple stressors, including contaminants and climate change, may act to cumulatively impact some populations of Arctic biota. Models are useful for predicting the net result of various contrasting climate-driven processes on POP and CEAC exposures; however, for some parameters, especially food web changes, insufficient data exists with which to populate such models. In addition to the impact of global regulations on POP levels in Arctic biota, this review demonstrates that there are various direct and indirect mechanisms by which climate change can influence contaminant exposure, accumulation, and effects; therefore, it is important to attribute POP variations to the actual contributing factors to inform future regulations and policies. To do so, a broad range of habitats, species, and processes must be considered for a thorough understanding and interpretation of the consequences to the distribution, accumulation, and effects of environmental contaminants. Given the complex interactions between climate change, contaminants, and ecosystems, it is important to plan for long-term, integrated pan-Arctic monitoring of key biota and ecosystems, and to collect ancillary data, including information on climate-related parameters, local meteorology, ecology, and physiology, and when possible, behavior, when carrying out research on POPs and CEACs in biota and food webs of the Arctic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrine Borgå
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, NO-0316 Oslo, Norway.
| | - Melissa A McKinney
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, Sainte-Anne-de-Bellevue, QC H9X 3 V9, Canada.
| | - Heli Routti
- Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, NO-9296 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kim J Fernie
- Ecotoxicology & Wildlife Health, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
| | | | | | - Derek C G Muir
- Aquatic Contaminants Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, Burlington, ON, L7S 1A1, Canada
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6
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Bustnes JO, Bårdsen BJ, Herzke D, Bangjord G, Bourgeon S, Fritsch C, Eulaers I. Ecosystem specific accumulation of organohalogenated compounds: A comparison between adjacent freshwater and terrestrial avian predators. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2022; 212:113455. [PMID: 35580663 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2022.113455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Insight into processes determining the exposure of organohalogenated contaminants (OHCs) in wildlife might be gained from comparing predators in different ecosystems. This study compared two avian predator species with similar food chain lengths: the goldeneye duck (Bucephala clangula) and the tawny owl (Strix aluco) breeding in adjacent freshwater- and terrestrial ecosystems in central Norway. We measured lipophilic organochlorines (OCs) and protein-bound perfluorinated substances (PFASs) in eggs of the two species over 21 years (1999-2019). Across years, the proportional distribution of OCs (∼90% of the ΣOHC load) relative to PFASs (∼10%) was similar in the two species. Moreover, ΣOC concentrations were similar between the species, but PFAS compounds were 2-12 times higher in the goldeneyes than in tawny owls. OC-pesticides dominated in tawny owls (∼60% of ΣOC), whereas persistent polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs) congeners were the main OC components in goldeneyes (∼70% of ΣOC). The lipid-normalized concentrations of most OC-pesticides and the less persistent PCB101 declined significantly in both species. Hexachlorobenzene (HCB), p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE), and more persistent PCBs decreased in tawny owls, while they tended to increase in goldeneyes. The increase in HCB was particulary robust. Among the PFASs, contrasted temporal trends were found across the species for four out of 11 compounds: PFOS declined while most perfluorocarboxylic acids (PFCAs) increased in tawny owls. In contrast, most PFASs were stable in goldeneyes. Moreover, there was no annual covariance between the OHC exposure in the two species: i.e., high concentrations in one species in a given year did not translate into high concentrations in the other. Hence, the two avian predators in adjacent ecosystems seem to be subject to different processes determining the OHC exposure, probably related to variation in diet and climate, long-range transport of different contaminants, and emissions of pollution locally.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Ove Bustnes
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), The Fram Centre, 9296, Tromsø, Norway.
| | - Bård-Jørgen Bårdsen
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA), The Fram Centre, 9296, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Dorte Herzke
- Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU), The Fram Centre, 9296, Tromsø, Norway
| | | | - Sophie Bourgeon
- Biology Department, Faculty of Science, University of Tromsø, 9037 Tromsø, Norway
| | - Clementine Fritsch
- Chrono-environnement UMR 6249 CNRS, University of Franche-Comté, 16 Route de Gray, 25030, Besançon Cedex, France
| | - Igor Eulaers
- Norwegian Polar Institute, The Fram Centre, 9296, Tromsø, Norway
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7
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Bustnes JO, Bårdsen B, Herzke D, Bangjord G, Bourgeon S, Fritsch C, Eulaers I. Temporal Trends of Organochlorine and Perfluorinated Contaminants in a Terrestrial Raptor in Northern Europe Over 34 years (1986-2019). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2022; 41:1508-1519. [PMID: 35312196 PMCID: PMC9321541 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2021] [Revised: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Fourteen legacy organochlorine (OC) contaminants and 12 perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) were measured in eggs of tawny owls (Strix alueco) in central Norway (1986-2019). We expected OCs to have reached stable equilibrium levels due to bans, and that recent phase-out of some PFASs would have slowed the increase of these compounds. ∑OC comprised on average approximately 92% of the measured compounds, whereas ∑PFAS accounted for approximately 8%. However, whereas the ∑OC to ∑PFAS ratio was approximately 60 in the first 5 years of the study, it was only approximately 11 in the last 5 years. Both OC pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) showed substantial declines over the study period (~85%-98%): hexachlorocyclohexanes and chlordanes seemed to be levelling off, whereas p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) and hexachlororbenzene (HCB), and most PCB congeners still seemed to decline at a more or less constant rate. While the concentration of perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), the dominating PFAS, was reduced by approximately 43%, other perfluorinated sulfonates (PFSAs) showed only minor changes. Moreover, the median concentrations of seven perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs) increased approximately five-fold over the study period. Perfluorononanoic acid and perfluoroundecanoate acid, however, seemed to be levelling off in recent years. In contrast, perfluorododecanoic acid, perfluorodecanoate acid, perfluorotridecanoic acid, and perfluorotetradecanoic acid seemed to increase more or less linearily. Finally, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) was increasingly likely to be detected over the study period. Hence, most legacy OCs and PFOS have not reached a lower threshold with stable background levels, and voluntary elimination of perfluoroalkyl carboxylates still has not resulted in declining levels in tawny owls in central Norway. Environ Toxicol Chem 2022;41:1508-1519. © 2022 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Ove Bustnes
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA)The Fram Centre9296TromsøNorway
| | - Bård‐Jørgen Bårdsen
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research (NINA)The Fram Centre9296TromsøNorway
| | - Dorte Herzke
- Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU)The Fram Centre9296TromsøNorway
| | | | - Sophie Bourgeon
- Department of Arctic and Marine BiologyUiT The Arctic University of Norway9037TromsøNorway
| | - Clementine Fritsch
- Chrono‐environnement UMR 6249 CNRS/University of Franche‐ComtéBesançonFrance
| | - Igor Eulaers
- Norwegian Polar Institute, The Fram Centre9296TromsøNorway
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8
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Weber EJ, Tebes-Stevens C, Washington JW, Gladstone R. Development of a PFAS reaction library: identifying plausible transformation pathways in environmental and biological systems. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2022; 24:689-753. [PMID: 35485941 PMCID: PMC9361427 DOI: 10.1039/d1em00445j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are used in many consumer applications due to their stain repellency, surfactant properties, ability to form water-proof coatings and use in fire suppression. The production, application, transport, use and disposal of PFAS and PFAS-treated products have resulted in their wide-spread occurrence in environmental and biological systems. Concern over exposure to PFAS and their transformation products and metabolites has necessitated the development of tools to predict the transformation of PFAS in environmental systems and metabolism in biological systems. We have developed reaction libraries for predicting transformation products and metabolites in a variety of environmental and biological reaction systems. These reaction libraries are based on generalized reaction schemes that encode the process science of PFAS reported in the peer-reviewed literature. The PFAS reaction libraries will be executed through the Chemical Transformation Simulator, a web-based tool that is available to the public. These reaction libraries are intended for predicting the environmental transformation and metabolism of PFAS only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Weber
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
| | - Caroline Tebes-Stevens
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
| | - John W Washington
- Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, United States Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA.
| | - Rachel Gladstone
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education (ORISE), Hosted at U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Athens, Georgia 30605, USA
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McGovern M, Warner NA, Borgå K, Evenset A, Carlsson P, Skogsberg E, Søreide JE, Ruus A, Christensen G, Poste AE. Is Glacial Meltwater a Secondary Source of Legacy Contaminants to Arctic Coastal Food Webs? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:6337-6348. [PMID: 35472293 PMCID: PMC9118541 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c07062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Climate change-driven increases in air and sea temperatures are rapidly thawing the Arctic cryosphere with potential for remobilization and accumulation of legacy persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in adjacent coastal food webs. Here, we present concentrations of selected POPs in zooplankton (spatially and seasonally), as well as zoobenthos and sculpin (spatially) from Isfjorden, Svalbard. Herbivorous zooplankton contaminant concentrations were highest in May [e.g., ∑polychlorinated biphenyls (8PCB); 4.43, 95% CI: 2.72-6.3 ng/g lipid weight], coinciding with the final stages of the spring phytoplankton bloom, and lowest in August (∑8PCB; 1.6, 95% CI: 1.29-1.92 ng/g lipid weight) when zooplankton lipid content was highest, and the fjord was heavily impacted by sediment-laden terrestrial inputs. Slightly increasing concentrations of α-hexachlorocyclohexane (α-HCH) in zooplankton from June (1.18, 95% CI: 1.06-1.29 ng/g lipid weight) to August (1.57, 95% CI: 1.44-1.71 ng/g lipid weight), alongside a higher percentage of α-HCH enantiomeric fractions closer to racemic ranges, indicate that glacial meltwater is a secondary source of α-HCH to fjord zooplankton in late summer. Except for α-HCH, terrestrial inputs were generally associated with reduced POP concentrations in zooplankton, suggesting that increased glacial melt is not likely to significantly increase exposure of legacy POPs in coastal fauna.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maeve McGovern
- Norwegian
Institute for Water Research, Tromsø 9007, Norway
- Department
of Arctic Marine Biology, UiT, The Arctic
University of Norway, Tromsø 9019, Norway
- University
Centre on Svalbard, Longyearbyen 9170, Norway
| | - Nicholas A. Warner
- The
Fram Centre, NILU-Norwegian Institute for
Air Research, Tromsø 9007, Norway
- Department
of Chemistry, UiT, The Arctic University
of Norway, Tromsø 9019, Norway
- Thermo Fischer
Scientific, Bremen 28199, Germany
| | - Katrine Borgå
- Department
of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo 0316, Norway
- Centre
for Biogeochemistry in the Anthropocene (CBA), University of Oslo, Oslo 0316, Norway
| | - Anita Evenset
- Department
of Arctic Marine Biology, UiT, The Arctic
University of Norway, Tromsø 9019, Norway
- Akvaplan-niva,
Fram Centre, Tromsø 9007, Norway
| | | | - Emelie Skogsberg
- Faculty
of Environmental Sciences and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås 1430, Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo 0579, Norway
| | | | - Anders Ruus
- Department
of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo 0316, Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo 0579, Norway
| | | | - Amanda E. Poste
- Norwegian
Institute for Water Research, Tromsø 9007, Norway
- Department
of Arctic Marine Biology, UiT, The Arctic
University of Norway, Tromsø 9019, Norway
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Szabo D, Nuske MR, Lavers JL, Shimeta J, Green MP, Mulder RA, Clarke BO. A baseline study of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in waterfowl from a remote Australian environment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 812:152528. [PMID: 34954161 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2021] [Revised: 12/11/2021] [Accepted: 12/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Elevated concentrations of PFASs in the liver may pose a toxicological risk to bird species and humans that consume them. This study aimed to determine concentrations of 43 per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in livers (n = 80) of Australian Shelducks (Tadorna tadornoides), Pacific Black Ducks (Anas superciliosa), and Teals (Anas sp.), as well as water and sediment from a remote Australian environment. Maximum concentrations of PFBA (1.9 ng L-1), PFOA (1.7 ng L-1) and PFOS (0.99 ng L-1) in water were consistent with long-range atmospheric and oceanic transport. PFOS (30%) and PFNA (22%) were the most frequently detected PFASs in Australian Shelduck livers (0.31 ± 0.68 ng g-1 ww and 0.16 ± 0.15 ng g-1 ww respectively). Maximum concentrations of PFOS in Pacific Black Ducks (50%) and Teals (44%) was 2.4 ng g-1 ww and 5.3 ng g-1 ww respectively. While PFAS levels in birds from this remote environment were below current animal consumption guidelines, continued monitoring of this ecosystem is recommended to assess the human health risk of consumption of wild game.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Szabo
- Australian Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants, School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Madison R Nuske
- School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Jennifer L Lavers
- Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, 7004, Australia
| | - Jeff Shimeta
- School of Science, RMIT University, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Mark P Green
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Raoul A Mulder
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Bradley O Clarke
- Australian Laboratory for Emerging Contaminants, School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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11
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Thorstensen H, Ruus A, Helberg M, Baek K, Enge EK, Borgå K. Common Eider and Herring Gull as Contaminant Indicators of Different Ecological Niches of an Urban Fjord System. INTEGRATED ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT 2021; 17:422-433. [PMID: 32926521 DOI: 10.1002/ieam.4340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Seabirds like gulls are common indicators in contaminant monitoring. The herring gull (Larus argentatus) is a generalist with a broad range of dietary sources, possibly introducing a weakness in its representativeness of aquatic contamination. To investigate the herring gull as an indicator of contamination in an urban-influenced fjord, the Norwegian Oslofjord, we compared concentrations of a range of lipophilic and protein-associated organohalogen contaminants (OHCs), Hg, and dietary markers in blood (n = 15), and eggs (n = 15) between the herring gull and the strict marine-feeding common eider (Somateria mollissima) in the breeding period of May 2017. Dietary markers showed that the herring gull was less representative of the marine food web than the common eider. We found higher concentrations of lipophilic OHCs (wet weight and lipid weight) and Hg (dry weight) in the blood of common eider (mean ± SE ∑PCB = 210 ± 126 ng/g ww, 60 600 ± 28 300 ng/g lw; mean Hg = 4.94 ± 0.438 ng/g dw) than of the herring gull (mean ± SE ∑PCB = 19.0 ± 15.6 ng/g ww, 1210 ± 1510 ng/g lw; mean Hg = 4.26 ± 0.438 ng/g dw). Eggs gave opposite results; higher wet weight and lipid weight OHC concentrations in the herring gull (mean ± SE ∑PCB = 257 ± 203 ng/g ww, 3240 ± 2610 ng/g lw) than the common eider (mean ± SE ∑PCB = 18.2 ± 20.8 ng/g ww, 101 ± 121 ng/g lw), resulting in higher OHC maternal transfer ratios in gulls than eiders. We suggest that the matrix differences are due to fasting during incubation in the common eider. We suggest that in urban areas, herring gull might not be representative as an indicator of marine contamination but rather urban contaminant exposure. The common eider is a better indicator of marine pollution in the Oslofjord. The results are influenced by the matrix choice, as breeding strategy affects lipid dynamics regarding the transfer of lipids and contaminants to eggs and remobilization of contaminants from lipids to blood during incubation, when blood is drawn from the mother. Our results illustrate the benefit of a multispecies approach for a thorough picture of contaminant status in urban marine ecosystems. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2021;17:422-433. © 2020 The Authors. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of Society of Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry (SETAC).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anders Ruus
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Section for Marine Pollution, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway
| | - Morten Helberg
- Department of Teacher Education, Østfold University College, Halden, Norway
| | - Kine Baek
- Section for Marine Pollution, Norwegian Institute for Water Research, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ellen Katrin Enge
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, Norwegian Institute for Air Research, Kjeller, Norway
| | - Katrine Borgå
- Department of Biosciences, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
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12
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YE T, CHEN Y, FU J, ZHANG A, FU J. [Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkyl substances in eggs: analytical methods and their application as pollutant bioindicator]. Se Pu 2021; 39:184-196. [PMID: 34227351 PMCID: PMC9274833 DOI: 10.3724/sp.j.1123.2020.09023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Perfluoroalkyl and polyfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs) are environmentally persistent and biomagnified along food chains. They have been widely detected globally, even in the human body, and their potential toxicity has attracted great attention. Eggs are the origin of new life of ovipara and are rich in nutrients, thus they serve as one of the main protein sources for humans. Therefore, the level of pollutants in eggs can affect the reproduction of ovipara, and it is also related to human health by food intake. In recent years, poultry egg samples have been widely used in the assessment of biological and ecological pollution as a non-invasive biota matrix. At the same time, recent studies have used eggs to evaluate the developmental toxicity and associated health risks based on the pollutant levels in egg samples. In this study, the methods of sample pretreatment and instrumental detection of PFASs for egg samples are summarized. In addition, the application of eggs as a pollutants bioindicator of PFASs contamination has been discussed.
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13
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Schulz K, Silva MR, Klaper R. Distribution and effects of branched versus linear isomers of PFOA, PFOS, and PFHxS: A review of recent literature. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 733:139186. [PMID: 32474294 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Revised: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/01/2020] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Perfluorinated alkyl substances (PFAS) have come to attention recently due to their widespread presence in the environment, recalcitrance, and potential negative health associations. Because of the long-term production of PFAS using ECF, which created branched isomers as byproducts in addition to the intended linear product, branched isomers of PFAS account for a significant portion of PFAS load in the environment. The distribution of isomers is not consistent in the environment, however. Geographic location appears to be a major factor in determining the isomer makeup of PFAS in surface and groundwater as well as in humans and animals. This is largely to differences in production methods; a region that produced PFAS via ECF for many years would have a higher ratio of branched isomers than one that produces PFAS using telomerization. In addition, the different structures of branched PFAS isomers as compared to linear PFAS appear to affect transport in the environment. Research suggests that linear PFAS sorb preferentially to soil and sediments, whereas branched isomers are more likely to remain in water. The higher polarity of the branched structure explains this difference. Studies in humans and animals show that most animals preferentially accumulate the linear PFOS isomer, but humans appear to preferentially accumulate the branched isomers as they are often found in human serum at percentages higher than that of ECF product. In addition, some studies have indicated that linear and branched PFAS isomers have some unique negative health associations. Very few studies, however, account for linear and branched PFAS separately.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarina Schulz
- School of Freshwater Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 600 E. Greenfield Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53204, USA; Water Technology Accelerator (WaTA), University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 247 W. Freshwater Way, Milwaukee, WI 53204, USA
| | - Marcia R Silva
- Water Technology Accelerator (WaTA), University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 247 W. Freshwater Way, Milwaukee, WI 53204, USA
| | - Rebecca Klaper
- School of Freshwater Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, 600 E. Greenfield Ave., Milwaukee, WI 53204, USA.
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14
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Lippold A, Aars J, Andersen M, Aubail A, Derocher AE, Dietz R, Eulaers I, Sonne C, Welker JM, Wiig Ø, Routti H. Two Decades of Mercury Concentrations in Barents Sea Polar Bears ( Ursus maritimus) in Relation to Dietary Carbon, Sulfur, and Nitrogen. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:7388-7397. [PMID: 32410455 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c01848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Temporal trends of total mercury (THg) were examined in female polar bear (Ursus maritimus) hair (n = 199) from the Barents Sea in 1995-2016. In addition, hair values of stable isotopes (n = 190-197) of carbon (δ13C), sulfur (δ34S), and nitrogen (δ15N) and information on breeding status, body condition, and age were obtained. Stable isotope values of carbon and sulfur reflect dietary source (e.g., marine vs terrestrial) and the nitrogen trophic level. Values for δ13C and δ34S declined by -1.62 and -1.18‰ over the time of the study period, respectively, while values for δ15N showed no trend. Total Hg concentrations were positively related to both δ13C and δ34S. Yearly median THg concentrations ranged from 1.61 to 2.75 μg/g and increased nonlinearly by 0.86 μg/g in total over the study. Correcting THg concentrations for stable isotope values of carbon and sulfur and additionally breeding status and age slightly accelerated the increase in THg concentrations; however, confidence intervals of the raw THg trend and the corrected THg trend had substantial overlap. The rise in THg concentrations in the polar bear food web was possibly related to climate-related re-emissions of previously stored Hg from thawing sea-ice, glaciers, and permafrost.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Lippold
- Fram Centre, Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø 9296, Norway
| | - Jon Aars
- Fram Centre, Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø 9296, Norway
| | | | - Aurore Aubail
- Littoral, Environment and Societies (CNRS/La Rochelle University), La Rochelle 17000, France
| | - Andrew E Derocher
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton T6G 2E9, Canada
| | - Rune Dietz
- Institute of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Roskilde 4000, Denmark
| | - Igor Eulaers
- Institute of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Roskilde 4000, Denmark
| | - Christian Sonne
- Institute of Bioscience, Arctic Research Centre, Aarhus University, Roskilde 4000, Denmark
| | - Jeffrey M Welker
- University of Alaska Anchorage, Anchorage 99508, United States
- University of Oulu, Oulu 90014, Finland
- University of the Arctic, Rovaniemi 96460, Finland
| | - Øystein Wiig
- Fram Centre, Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø 9296, Norway
- Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, 0318 Oslo, Norway
| | - Heli Routti
- Fram Centre, Norwegian Polar Institute, Tromsø 9296, Norway
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15
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Trophic Magnification of Legacy (PCB, DDT and Hg) and Emerging Pollutants (PFAS) in the Fish Community of a Small Protected Southern Alpine Lake (Lake Mergozzo, Northern Italy). WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12061591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The biomagnification of mercury, polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane and its metabolites (DDTs) and perfluoroalkyl acids substances (PFASs) was evaluated in the trophic web of Lake Mergozzo, a small and deep Italian subalpine lake, which has been chosen because it is a protected environment, and discharges into the lake are mostly avoided. Carbon source and relative trophic levels were calculated by using 13C and 15N stable isotopes, respectively, and trophic magnification factors (TMFs) were derived. Zooplankton and thirteen species of fish were collected and analyzed, and the results showed the elevated level of biota contamination from both legacy and emerging pollutants, even if direct discharges were avoided. Concentrations in biota, expressed as sums of compounds, ranged from 0.4 to 60 µg kg−1 wet weight (ww) for PFASs, from 16 to 1.3 104 µg kg−1 lipid content (lw) for DDTs, from 17 to 1.5 104 µg kg−1 lw for PCBs and from 20.0 to 501 µg kg−1 ww for mercury (Hg). TMFs of this deep, cold lake, with a prevalent pelagic trophic chain, were high and clearly indicated fish biomagnification, except for PFAS. The biomagnification capability of PFAS in a fish-only food web was discussed by using the biomagnification of Hg as a benchmark for assessing their bioaccumulation potential.
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Kristiansen SM, Leinaas HP, Herzke D, Hylland K, Gabrielsen GW, Harju M, Borgå K. Seabird-Transported Contaminants Are Reflected in the Arctic Tundra, But Not in Its Soil-Dwelling Springtails (Collembola). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:12835-12845. [PMID: 31589028 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b05316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Arctic-breeding seabirds contain high levels of many anthropogenic contaminants, which they deposit through guano to the tundra near their colonies. Nutrient-rich soil in vicinity to seabird colonies are favorable habitats for soil invertebrates, such as springtails (Collembola), which may result in exposure to seabird-derived contaminants. We quantified a wide range of lipid-soluble and protein-associated environmental contaminants in two springtail species (Megaphorura arctica and Hypogastrura viatica) and their respective habitats (soil/moss) collected underneath seabird cliffs. Although springtails are commonly used in laboratory toxicity tests, this is the first study to measure concentrations of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) and mercury (Hg) in springtails from the field, and to study biotransportation of contaminants by seabirds to soil fauna. We categorized the sites a priori as of low, medium, or high seabird influence, based on the seabird abundance and species composition. This ranking was reflected in increasing δ15N values in soil/moss and springtails with increasing seabird influence. We found clear indications of seabirds impacting the terrestrial soil environments with organic contaminants, and that concentrations were higher in soil and moss close to the bird cliff, compared to farther away. However, we did not find a relationship between contaminant concentration in springtails and the concentrations in soil/moss, or with level of seabird influence. Our study indicates a low uptake of contaminants in the soil fauna, despite seabird-derived contamination of their habitat.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hans P Leinaas
- Department of Biosciences , University of Oslo (UiO) , 0316 Oslo , Norway
| | - Dorte Herzke
- Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) , Fram Centre , 9296 Tromsø , Norway
| | - Ketil Hylland
- Department of Biosciences , University of Oslo (UiO) , 0316 Oslo , Norway
| | - Geir W Gabrielsen
- Norwegian Polar Institute (NPI) , Fram Centre , 9296 Tromsø , Norway
| | - Mikael Harju
- Norwegian Institute for Air Research (NILU) , Fram Centre , 9296 Tromsø , Norway
| | - Katrine Borgå
- Department of Biosciences , University of Oslo (UiO) , 0316 Oslo , Norway
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17
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Hitchcock DJ, Andersen T, Varpe Ø, Borgå K. Effects of Maternal Reproductive Investment on Sex-Specific Pollutant Accumulation in Seabirds: A Meta-Analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:7821-7829. [PMID: 31136156 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b01296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Avian egg production demands resources such as lipids and proteins. Relative egg size and mass varies across species, reflecting differences in maternal investment. This variability may affect the maternal transfer of anthropogenic pollutants including lipophilic polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and protein-associated per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) and mercury (Hg). We conducted a meta-analysis on seabirds and investigated whether interspecies variation in maternal investment contributes toward skewed pollutant concentration ratios between males and females, as Cmale/Cfemale (80 studies). Overall concentrations of PCBs and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) were 1.6 and 1.3 times higher, respectively, in males than females, whereas mercury was similar between sexes. Few studies compared females and eggs ( n = 6), highlighting a knowledge gap. We found that an increasing maternal investment as a clutch-to-female mass ratio resulted in lower PCB concentrations in females than in males during the incubation period, but no sex-specific differences were observed for mercury and PFOS. Egg production is both a lipid dominated and protein-limited process. Females transfer lipophilic pollutants more easily to eggs, and to a higher degree with increasing maternal investment, but feeding ecology may be more important. Interspecies variation in maternal pollutant transfer may lead to negative effects scaling from an offspring to population level.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tom Andersen
- Department of Biosciences , University of Oslo , 0316 Oslo , Norway
| | - Øystein Varpe
- Department of Arctic Biology , University Centre in Svalbard , 9171 Longyearbyen , Norway
- Norwegian Institute for Nature Research , 5006 Bergen , Norway
| | - Katrine Borgå
- Department of Biosciences , University of Oslo , 0316 Oslo , Norway
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