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Xu Z, Wang M, Chang L, Pan K, Shen X, Zhong S, Xu J, Liu L, Li G, Chen L. Assessing the particulate matter emission reduction characteristics of small turbofan engine fueled with 100 % HEFA sustainable aviation fuel. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 945:174128. [PMID: 38908593 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 06/16/2024] [Accepted: 06/17/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
With the continuous increase in global air transportation, the impact of ultrafine particulate matter (PM) emissions from aviation on human health and environmental pollution is becoming increasingly severe. In addition to carbon reduction throughout the lifecycle, Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAF) also represent a significant pathway for reducing PM emissions. However, due to issues such as airworthiness safety and adaptability, existing research has mostly focused on the emission performance of SAF when blended with traditional fuels at <50 %, leaving the emission characteristics of higher blending ratios to be explored. In this study, using measurement methods recommended by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), the PM emission reduction characteristics of small turbofan engines fueled with 100 % Hydroprocessed Esters and Fatty Acids (HEFA)-SAF were experimentally evaluated and compared with traditional fuels RP-3 and Diesel, while avoiding the interference of lubricant blending combustion. The results showed that the peak number concentration of particle size distribution (PSD), PM total number, as well as the number and mass concentration of non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) decreased initially and then increased with rising thrust conditions. HEFA-SAF exhibits PSD with smaller diameters, and the Geometric Mean Diameter (GMD) ranges from 7.7 nm to 20.3 nm under all conditions. Both volatile particulates (vPM) and nvPM from HEFA-SAF are significantly reduced, with nvPM number emission index (EIn) being 92 % and 71 % lower than Diesel and RP-3, respectively. The nvPM mass emission index (EIm) also shows reductions of 96 % and 89 % compared to Diesel and RP-3. Microscopic characterization also indicated that using HEFA-SAF emitted fewer and smaller PMs. This study establishes a foundation for evaluating the effectiveness of 100 % SAF in reducing PM emissions within the aviation sector, and contributes to the airworthiness regulations development related to the use of SAF in a variety of application environments, alongside enhancing environmental protection measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng Xu
- Hangzhou International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Minghua Wang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Liuyong Chang
- Hangzhou International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Kang Pan
- Hangzhou International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China; Tianmushan Laboratory, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Xiaowei Shen
- Hangzhou International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Shenghui Zhong
- Hangzhou International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Jingsha Xu
- Hangzhou International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Lei Liu
- Hangzhou International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Guangze Li
- Hangzhou International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China.
| | - Longfei Chen
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100083, China.
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Durdina L, Durand E, Edebeli J, Spirig C, Brem BT, Elser M, Siegerist F, Johnson M, Sevcenco YA, Crayford AP. Characterizing and Predicting nvPM Size Distributions for Aviation Emission Inventories and Environmental Impact. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:10548-10557. [PMID: 38853642 PMCID: PMC11191599 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.4c02538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2024] [Revised: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 05/30/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
Concerns about civil aviation's air quality and environmental impacts have led to recent regulations on nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) mass and number emissions. Although these regulations do not mandate measuring particle size distribution (PSD), understanding PSDs is vital for assessing the environmental impacts of aviation nvPM. This study introduces a comprehensive data set detailing PSD characteristics of 42 engines across 19 turbofan types, ranging from unregulated small business jets to regulated large commercial aircraft. Emission tests were independently performed by using the European and Swiss reference nvPM sampling and measurement systems with parallel PSD measurements. The geometric mean diameter (GMD) at the engine exit strongly correlated with the nvPM number-to-mass ratio (N/M) and thrust, varying from 7 to 52 nm. The engine-exit geometric standard deviation ranged from 1.7 to 2.5 (mean of 2.05). The study proposes empirical correlations to predict GMD from N/M data of emissions-certified engines. These predictions are expected to be effective for conventional rich-burn engines and might be extended to novel combustor technologies if additional data become available. The findings support the refinement of emission models and help in assessing the aviation non-CO2 climate and air quality impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Durdina
- Centre
for Aviation, ZHAW Zurich University of
Applied Sciences, Winterthur CH-8401, Switzerland
| | - Eliot Durand
- Cardiff
School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Wales CF24 3AA, U.K.
| | - Jacinta Edebeli
- Centre
for Aviation, ZHAW Zurich University of
Applied Sciences, Winterthur CH-8401, Switzerland
| | - Curdin Spirig
- Centre
for Aviation, ZHAW Zurich University of
Applied Sciences, Winterthur CH-8401, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T. Brem
- Laboratory
for Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer
Institute, Villigen CH-5232, Switzerland
| | - Miriam Elser
- Laboratory
for Automotive Powertrain Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | | | - Mark Johnson
- Rolls-Royce,Plc, Sin A-37
PO Box 31, Derby DE24 8BJ, U.K.
| | - Yura A. Sevcenco
- Cardiff
School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Wales CF24 3AA, U.K.
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3
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Giannelli R, Stevens J, Kinsey JS, Kittelson D, Zelenyuk A, Howard R, Forde M, Hoffman B, Leggett C, Maeroff B, Bies N, Swanson J, Suski K, Payne G, Manin J, Frazee R, Onasch TB, Freedman A, Khalek I, Badshah H, Preece D, Premnath V, Agnew S. Evaluation of methods for characterizing the fine particulate matter emissions from aircraft and other diffusion flame combustion aerosol sources. JOURNAL OF AEROSOL SCIENCE 2024; 178:1-20. [PMID: 38751612 PMCID: PMC11095129 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaerosci.2024.106352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2024]
Abstract
The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency in collaboration with the U. S. Air Force Arnold Engineering Development Complex conducted the VAriable Response In Aircraft nvPM Testing (VARIAnT) 3 and 4 test campaigns to compare nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) emissions measurements from a variety of diffusion flame combustion aerosol sources (DFCASs), including a Cummins diesel engine, a diesel powered generator, two gas turbine start carts, a J85-GE-5 turbojet engine burning multiple fuels, and a Mini-CAST soot generator. The VARIAnT research program was devised to understand reported variability in the ARP6320A sampling system nvPM measurements. The VARIAnT research program has conducted four test campaigns to date with the VARIAnT 3 and 4 campaigns devoted to: (1) assessing the response of three different black carbon mass analyzers to particles of different size, morphology, and chemical composition; (2) characterizing the particles generated by 6 different combustion sources according to morphology, effective density, and chemical composition; and (3) assessing any significant difference between black carbon as determined by the 3 mass analyzers and the total PM determined via other techniques. Results from VARIAnT 3 and 4 campaigns revealed agreement of about 20% between the Micro-Soot Sensor, the Cavity Attenuated Phase Shift (CAPS PMSSA) monitor and the thermal-optical reference method for elemental carbon (EC) mass, independent of the calibration source used. For the LII-300, the measured mass concentrations in VARIAnT 3 fall within 18% and in VARIAnT 4 fall within 27% of the reference EC mass concentration when calibrated on a combustor rig in VARIAnT 3 and on an LGT-60 start cart in VARIAnT 4, respectively. It was also found that the three mass instrument types (MSS, CAPS PMSSA, and LII-300) can exhibit different BC to reference EC ratios depending on the emission source that appear to correlate to particle geometric mean mobility diameter, morphology, or some other parameter associated with particle geometric mean diameter (GMD) with the LII-300 showing a slightly stronger apparent trend with GMD. Systematic differences in LII-300 measured mass concentrations have been reduced by calibrating with a turbine combustion as a particle source (combustor or turbine engine). With respect to the particle size measurements, the sizing instruments (TSI SMPS, TSI EEPS, and Cambustion DMS 500) were found to be in general agreement in terms of size distributions and concentrations with some exceptions. Gravimetric measurements of the total aerosol mass produced by the various DFCAs differed from the reference EC, BC and integrated particle size distribution measured aerosol masses. The measurements of particle size distributions and single particle analysis performed using the miniSPLAT indicated the presence of larger particles (≳150 nm) having more compact morphologies, higher effective density, and a composition dominated by OC and containing ash. This increased large particle fraction is also associated with higher values of single scattering albedo measured by the CAPS PMSSA instrument and higher OC measurements. These measurements indicate gas turbine engine emissions can be a more heterogeneous mix of particle types beyond the original E-31 assumption that engine exit exhaust particles are mainly composed of black carbon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert Giannelli
- U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, USA
| | - Jeffrey Stevens
- U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, USA
| | - John S. Kinsey
- Shu Research LLC, Mebane, NC 27302, Formerly U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC, 27711, USA
| | - David Kittelson
- University of Minnesota, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA
| | - Alla Zelenyuk
- U.S. Department of Energy, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Richland, WA, 99352, USA
| | - Robert Howard
- Arnold Engineering Development Complex, Arnold Air Force Base, TN, 37389, USA
| | - Mary Forde
- Arnold Engineering Development Complex, Arnold Air Force Base, TN, 37389, USA
| | - Brandon Hoffman
- U.S. Air Force, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, OH (Formerly Arnold Engineering Development Complex, Arnold Air Force Base, TN, 37389, USA
| | - Cullen Leggett
- U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, USA
| | - Bruce Maeroff
- U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, USA
| | - Nick Bies
- U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, USA
| | - Jacob Swanson
- Minnesota State University, Bloomington, MN, 55431, USA
| | - Kaitlyn Suski
- U.S. Department of Energy, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL), Richland, WA, 99352, USA
| | | | - Julien Manin
- Artium Technologies Inc., Sunnyvale, CA, 94085, USA
| | - Richard Frazee
- Singularity Scientific Consulting Services, LLC, Whitmore Lake, MI, 48189, USA
| | | | | | - Imad Khalek
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, 78238, USA
| | | | - Daniel Preece
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, 78238, USA
| | - Vinay Premnath
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX, 78238, USA
| | - Scott Agnew
- U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Ann Arbor, MI, 48105, USA
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Heeb NV, Muñoz M, Haag R, Wyss S, Schönenberger D, Durdina L, Elser M, Siegerist F, Mohn J, Brem BT. Corelease of Genotoxic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nanoparticles from a Commercial Aircraft Jet Engine - Dependence on Fuel and Thrust. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:1615-1624. [PMID: 38206005 PMCID: PMC10809754 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Jet engines are important contributors to global CO2 emissions and release enormous numbers of ultrafine particles into different layers of the atmosphere. As a result, aviation emissions are affecting atmospheric chemistry and promote contrail and cloud formation with impacts on earth's radiative balance and climate. Furthermore, the corelease of nanoparticles together with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) affects air quality at airports. We studied exhausts of a widely used turbofan engine (CFM56-7B26) operated at five static thrust levels (idle, 7, 30, 65, and 85%) with conventional Jet A-1 fuel and a biofuel blend composed of hydro-processed esters and fatty acids (HEFA). The particles released, the chemical composition of condensable material, and the genotoxic potential of these exhausts were studied. At ground operation, particle number emissions of 3.5 and 0.5 × 1014 particles/kg fuel were observed with highest genotoxic potentials of 41300 and 8800 ng toxicity equivalents (TEQ)/kg fuel at idle and 7% thrust, respectively. Blending jet fuel with HEFA lowered PAH and particle emissions by 7-34% and 65-67% at idle and 7% thrust, respectively, indicating that the use of paraffin-rich biofuels is an effective measure to reduce the exposure of airport personnel to nanoparticles coated with genotoxic PAHs (Trojan horse effect).
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert V. Heeb
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Maria Muñoz
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Regula Haag
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Simon Wyss
- Empa, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Air Pollution/Environmental Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - David Schönenberger
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Empa, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Air Pollution/Environmental Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Durdina
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Miriam Elser
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Empa, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Automotive Powertrain Technologies Laboratory, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | | | - Joachim Mohn
- Empa, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Air Pollution/Environmental Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T. Brem
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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5
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Review: Particulate Matter Emissions from Aircraft. ATMOSPHERE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos13081230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The contribution of aircraft operations to ambient ultrafine particle (UFP) concentration at and around airports can be significant. This review article considers the volatile and non-volatile elements of particulate matter emissions from aircraft engines, their characteristics and quantification and identifies gaps in knowledge. The current state of the art emission inventory methods and dispersion modelling approaches are reviewed and areas for improvement and research needs are identified. Quantification of engine non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) is improving as measured certification data for the landing and take-off cycle are becoming available. Further work is needed: to better estimate nvPM emissions during the full-flight; to estimate non-regulated (smaller) engines; and to better estimate the emissions and evolution of volatile particles (vPM) in the aircraft exhaust plume. Dispersion modelling improvements are also needed to better address vPM. As the emissions inventory data for both vPM and nvPM from aircraft sources improve, better estimates of the contribution of aircraft engine emissions to ambient particulate concentrations will be possible.
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6
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Zhou L, Ni Y, Feng H, Hu X. Assessment of predicted aircraft engine non-volatile particulate matter emissions at Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport using an integrated method. JOURNAL OF THE AIR & WASTE MANAGEMENT ASSOCIATION (1995) 2022; 72:370-382. [PMID: 35061582 DOI: 10.1080/10962247.2022.2029617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 12/28/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Assessing the aircraft engine nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) emissions during landing and take-off (LTO) cycles is significant for airport air quality management. However, presently few prior studies have examined aircraft engine nvPM emissions on a daily basis for optimizing flight operations at airports. Therefore, based on the latest first-order approximation method of engine nvPM emissions, we introduce the engine emission data and aircraft flight data to establish an integrated method for estimating daily aircraft engine nvPM emissions at airports. This method can be applied to obtain different engine nvPM mass and number emissions in each phase of the LTO cycle, and therefore the total nvPM mass and number emissions in different time periods can be estimated for the analysis of the sources and trends of daily aircraft engine nvPM emissions during LTO cycles at Hangzhou Xiaoshan International Airport. Results show that the highest aircraft engine nvPM mass and number emissions are generally predicted to occur in the climb and taxi/ground idle phase, respectively. The proportion of total engine nvPM mass and number emissions in each phase of the LTO cycle could also be estimated, specifically the take-off phase (21% & 6%), climb phase (52% &15%), approach phase (8% & 27%), and taxi/ground idle phase (19% & 52%). In addition, the trends of hourly engine nvPM mass and number emissions during LTO cycles within a day are similar, but the predicted highest total hourly engine nvPM mass and number emissions occur in different time periods (7:00-8:00 a.m. & 11:00-12:00 a.m.) at the airport, and the total hourly engine nvPM mass and number emissions at 6:00 a.m. to 17:00 p.m. are generally higher than those of the rest periods. These results are valuable for optimizing flight operations for mitigating the environmental impact of aircraft engine nvPM emissions.Implications: The integrated method for estimating engine nvPM mass and number emissions in the LTO cycle based on FOA4.0 method reported in this study is effective to assess the sources and trends of daily aircraft engine nvPM emissions during LTO cycles at airports, which is valuable for optimizing flight operations considering the environmental impact of aircraft engine nvPM emissions. When the relevant aircraft flights, engine parameters, and engine nvPM emission databases embedded in the integrated method for any airport are established, the method is feasible to assess the sources and trends of aircraft engine nvPM emissions during LTO cycles at any time period in the airport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Limin Zhou
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
- Civil Aviation Department, Zhejiang Institute of Communications, Hangzhou, People's Republic of China
| | - Yushan Ni
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Huolei Feng
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaowen Hu
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fudan University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Durdina L, Brem BT, Elser M, Schönenberger D, Siegerist F, Anet JG. Reduction of Nonvolatile Particulate Matter Emissions of a Commercial Turbofan Engine at the Ground Level from the Use of a Sustainable Aviation Fuel Blend. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:14576-14585. [PMID: 34662519 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) emissions from aircraft turbine engines deteriorate air quality and contribute to climate change. These emissions can be reduced using sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs). Here, we investigate the effects of a 32% SAF blend with fossil fuel on particle size distributions and nvPM emission indices of a widely used turbofan engine. The experiments were conducted in a test cell using a standardized sampling and measurement system. The geometric mean diameter (GMD) increased with thrust from ∼8 nm at idle to ∼40 nm at take-off, and the geometric standard deviation (GSD) was in the range of 1.74-2.01. The SAF blend reduced the GMD and GSD at each test point. The nvPM emission indices were reduced most markedly at idle by 70% in terms of nvPM mass and 60% in terms of nvPM number. The relative reduction of nvPM emissions decreased with the increasing thrust. The SAF blend reduced the nvPM emissions from the standardized landing and take-off cycle by 20% in terms of nvPM mass and 25% in terms of nvPM number. This work will help develop standardized models of fuel composition effects on nvPM emissions and evaluate the impacts of SAF on air quality and climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Durdina
- Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Miriam Elser
- Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Julien G Anet
- Centre for Aviation, School of Engineering, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur CH-8401, Switzerland
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