Effect of Lewis Acids on the Structure and Reactivity of a Mononuclear Hydroxomanganese(III) Complex

Basicity of MnIII-Hydroxo Complexes Controls the Thermodynamics of Proton-Coupled Electron Transfer Reactions

Several manganese-dependent enzymes utilize MnIII-hydroxo units in concerted proton-electron transfer (CPET) reactions. We recently demonstrated that hydrogen bonding to the hydroxo ligand in the synthetic [MnIII(OH)(PaPy2N)]+ complex increased rates of CPET reactions compared to the [MnIII(OH)(PaPy2Q)]+ complex that lacks a hydrogen bond. In this work, we determine the effect of hydrogen bonding on the basicity of the hydroxo ligand and evaluate the corresponding effect on CPET reactions. Both [MnIII(OH)(PaPy2Q)]+ and [MnIII(OH)(PaPy2N)]+ react with strong acids to yield MnIII-aqua complexes [MnIII(OH2)(PaPy2Q)]2+ and [MnIII(OH2)(PaPy2N)]2+, for which we determined pKa values of 7.6 and 13.1, respectively. Reactions of the MnIII-aqua complexes with one-electron reductants yielded estimates of reduction potentials, which were combined with pKa values to give O-H bond dissociation free energies (BDFEs) of 77 and 85 kcal mol-1 for the MnII-aqua complexes [MnII(OH2)(PaPy2Q)]+ and [MnII(OH2)(PaPy2N)]+. Using these BDFEs, we performed an analysis of the thermodynamic driving force for phenol oxidation by these complexes and observed the unexpected result that slower rates are associated with more asynchronous CPET. In addition, reactions of acidic phenols with the MnIII-hydroxo complexes show rates that deviate from the thermodynamic trends, consistent with a change in mechanism from CPET to proton transfer.

Controlling Redox Potential of a Manganese(III)-Bis(hydroxo) Complex through Protonation and the Hydrogen-Atom Transfer Reactivity

A series of mononuclear manganese(III)-hydroxo and -aqua complexes, [MnIII(TBDAP)(OH)2]+ (1), [MnIII(TBDAP)(OH)(OH2)]2+ (2) and [MnIII(TBDAP)(OH2)2]3+ (3), were prepared from a manganese(II) precursor and confirmed using various methods including X-ray crystallography. Thermodynamic analysis showed that protonation from hydroxo to aqua species resulted in increased redox potentials (E1/2) in the order of 1 (-0.15 V) < 2 (0.56 V) < 3 (1.11 V), while pKa values exhibited a reverse trend in the order of 3 (3.87) < 2 (11.84). Employing the Bordwell Equation, the O-H bond dissociation free energies (BDFE) of [MnII(TBDAP)(OH)(OH2)]+ and [MnII(TBDAP)(OH2)2]2+, related to the driving force of 1 and 2 in hydrogen atom transfer (HAT), were determined as 75.3 and 77.3 kcal mol-1, respectively. It was found that the thermodynamic driving force of 2 in HAT becomes greater than that of 1 as the redox potential of 2 increases through protonation from 1 to 2. Kinetic studies on electrophilic reactions using a variety of substrates revealed that 1 is only weakly reactive with O-H bonds, whereas 2 can activate aliphatic C-H bonds in addition to O-H bonds. The reaction rates increased by 1.4 × 104-fold for the O-H bonds by 2 over 1, which was explained by the difference in BDFE and the tunneling effect. Furthermore, 3, possessing the highest redox potential value, was found to undergo an aromatic C-H bond activation reaction under mild conditions. These results provide valuable insights into enhancing electrophilic reactivity by modulating the redox potential of manganese(III)-hydroxo and -aqua complexes through protonation.

Identification, Characterization, and Electronic Structures of Interconvertible Cobalt-Oxygen TAML Intermediates

The reaction of Li[(TAML)CoIII]·3H2O (TAML = tetraamido macrocyclic tetraanionic ligand) with iodosylbenzene at 253 K in acetone in the presence of redox-innocent metal ions (Sc(OTf)3 and Y(OTf)3) or triflic acid affords a blue species 1, which is converted reversibly to a green species 2 upon cooling to 193 K. The electronic structures of 1 and 2 have been determined by combining advanced spectroscopic techniques (X-band electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR), X-ray absorption spectroscopy/extended X-ray absorption fine structure (XAS/EXAFS), and magnetic circular dichroism (MCD)) with ab initio theoretical studies. Complex 1 is best represented as an S = 1/2 [(Sol)(TAML•+)CoIII---OH(LA)]- species (LA = Lewis/Brønsted acid and Sol = solvent), where an S = 1 Co(III) center is antiferromagnetically coupled to S = 1/2 TAML•+, which represents a one-electron oxidized TAML ligand. In contrast, complex 2, also with an S = 1/2 ground state, is found to be multiconfigurational with contributions of both the resonance forms [(H-TAML)CoIV═O(LA)]- and [(H-TAML•+)CoIII═O(LA)]-; H-TAML and H-TAML•+ represent the protonated forms of TAML and TAML•+ ligands, respectively. Thus, the interconversion of 1 and 2 is associated with a LA-associated tautomerization event, whereby H+ shifts from the terminal -OH group to TAML•+ with the concomitant formation of a terminal cobalt-oxo species possessing both singlet (SCo = 0) Co(III) and doublet (SCo = 1/2) Co(IV) characters. The reactivities of 1 and 2 at different temperatures have been investigated in oxygen atom transfer (OAT) and hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) reactions to compare the activation enthalpies and entropies of 1 and 2.

Redox Processes Involving Oxygen: The Surprising Influence of Redox-Inactive Lewis Acids

Metalloenzymes with heteromultimetallic active sites perform chemical reactions that control several biogeochemical cycles. Transformations catalyzed by such enzymes include dioxygen generation and reduction, dinitrogen reduction, and carbon dioxide reduction-instrumental transformations for progress in the context of artificial photosynthesis and sustainable fertilizer production. While the roles of the respective metals are of interest in all these enzymatic transformations, they share a common factor in the transfer of one or multiple redox equivalents. In light of this feature, it is surprising to find that incorporation of redox-inactive metals into the active site of such an enzyme is critical to its function. To illustrate, the presence of a redox-inactive Ca2+ center is crucial in the Oxygen Evolving Complex, and yet particularly intriguing given that the transformation catalyzed by this cluster is a redox process involving four electrons. Therefore, the effects of redox inactive metals on redox processes-electron transfer, oxygen- and hydrogen-atom transfer, and O-O bond cleavage and formation reactions-mediated by transition metals have been studied extensively. Significant effects of redox inactive metals have been observed on these redox transformations; linear free energy correlations between Lewis acidity and the redox properties of synthetic model complexes are observed for several reactions. In this Perspective, these effects and their relevance to multielectron processes will be discussed.

Formation of a Reactive [Mn(III)-O-Ce(IV)] Species and its Facile Equilibrium with Related Mn(IV)(OX) (X = Sc or H) Complexes

Lewis acid-bound high valent Mn-oxo species are of great importance due to their relevance to photosystem II. Here, we report the synthesis of a unique [(BnTPEN)Mn(III)-O-Ce(IV)(NO3 )4 ]+ adduct (2) by the reaction of (BnTPEN)Mn(II) (1) with 4 eq. ceric ammonium nitrate. 2 has been characterized using UV/Vis, NMR, resonance Raman spectroscopy, as well as by mass spectrometry. Treatment of 2 with Sc(III)(OTf)3 results in the formation of (BnTPEN)Mn(IV)-O-Sc(III) (3), while HClO4 addition to 2 forms (BnTPEN)Mn(IV)-OH (4), reverting to 2 upon Ce(III)(NO3 )3 addition. 2 can also be prepared by the oxidation of 1 eq. Ce(III)(NO3 )3 with [(BnTPEN)Mn(IV)=O]2+ (5). In addition, the EPR spectroscopy revealed the elegant temperature-dependent equilibria between 2 and Mn(IV) species. The binding of redox-active Ce(IV) boosts electron transfer efficiency of 2 towards ferrocenes. Remarkably, the newly characterized Mn(III)-O-Ce(IV) species can carry out O-atom and H-atom transfer reactions.

Kinetic and mechanistic investigations of dioxygen reduction by a molecular Cu(II) catalyst bearing a pentadentate amidate ligand

A pentadentate Cu(II) complex, [CuII(dpaq)](ClO4) (1), featuring a redox active ligand, H-dpaq (H-dpaq = 2-[bis(pyridine-2-ylmethyl)]amino-N-quinolin-8-yl-acetamidate), catalyses four-electron reduction of dioxygen by decamethylferrocene (Fc*) in the presence of trifluoroacetic acid (CF3COOH) in acetone at 298 K. No catalytic oxygen reduction was observed in the presence of stronger Brønsted acids than CF3COOH, such as perchloric acid (HClO4) or trifluoromethanesulphonic acid (HOTf). In contrast, facile catalytic reduction of O2 occurs by Fc* with 1 and HClO4 or HOTf in dimethylformamide (DMF). The use of CF3COOH as the proton source in DMF results in the suppression of O2 reduction under otherwise identical reaction conditions. While the O2 reduction reactions in DMF are linearly dependent on the pKa of Brønsted acids, the acid dependence on catalytic O2-reduction reactivity by 1 in acetone showed complete reversal. Cyclic voltammetry studies using p-chloranil as the probe substrates in the presence of acids in the solvents reveal that the strengths of the protonic acids increase significantly in acetone compared to that in DMF. The amidate-N in [CuII(dpaq)](ClO4) (1) undergoes protonation in the presence of HClO4 or HOTf in DMF to form [CuII(H-dpaq)]2+ (1-H+), but not in the presence of CF3COOH. Enhanced acid strength of CF3COOH in acetone, however, effectively protonates 1 and triggers O2 reduction. Protonation of 1 with HClO4 or HOTf in acetone results in the change of its coordination environment, and this protonated species does not trigger O2 reduction. Detailed kinetic studies indicate that 1-H+ undergoes reduction by two-electrons and the reduced species binds O2 to form a Cu(II)-superoxo intermediate. This is followed by a rate-determining proton-coupled electron-transfer (PCET) reduction to generate the Cu(II)-hydroperoxo intermediate. While catalytic O2 reduction in acetone occurs predominantly via a 4e-/4H+ pathway, product selectivity (H2O vs. H2O2) in DMF depends upon the concentration of the reductant (Fc*). While dioxygen reduction to H2O2 is favoured at low [Fc*], mechanistic studies suggest that O2 reduction with high [Fc*] proceeds via a [2e- + 2e-] mechanism, where the released H2O2 during catalysis is further reduced to water.

Acid Catalysis in the Oxidation of Substrates by Mononuclear Manganese(III)-Aqua Complexes

Acids are known to enhance the reactivities of metal-oxygen intermediates, such as metal-oxo, -hydroperoxo, -peroxo, and -superoxo complexes, in biomimetic oxidation reactions. Although metal-aqua (and metal-hydroxo) complexes have been shown to be potent oxidants in oxidation reactions, acid effects on the reactivities of metal-aqua complexes have never been investigated previously. In this study, a mononuclear manganese(III)-aqua complex, [(dpaq^5NO2)Mn^III(OH₂)]²⁺ (1; dpaq^5NO2 = 2-[bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)]amino-N-quinolin-8-ylacetamidate with an NO₂ substituent at the 5 position), which is relatively stable in the presence of triflic acid (HOTf), is used in the investigation of acid-catalyzed oxidation reactions by metal-aqua complexes. As a result, we report a remarkable acid catalysis in the six-electron oxidation of anthracene by 1 in the presence of HOTf; anthraquinone is formed as the product. In the HOTf-catalyzed six-electron oxidation of anthracene by 1, the rate constant increases linearly with an increase of the HOTf concentration. Combined with the observed one-electron oxidation product, anthracene (derivative) radical cation, and the substitution effect at the 5 position of the dpaq ligand in 1 on the rate constants of the oxidation of anthracene, it is concluded that the oxidation of anthracene occurs via an acid-promoted electron transfer (APET) from anthracene to 1. The dependence of the rate constants of the APET from electron donors, including anthracene derivatives, to 1 on the driving force of electron transfer is also shown to be well fitted by the Marcus equation of outer-sphere electron transfer. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first example showing acid catalysis in the oxidation of substrates by metal(III)-aqua complexes.

Oxidative versus basic asynchronous hydrogen atom transfer reactions of Mn(III)-hydroxo and Mn(III)-aqua complexes

Hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) of metal-oxygen intermediates such as metal-oxo, -hydroxo and -superoxo species have so far been studied extensively. However, HAT reactions of metal-aqua complexes have yet to be...

Bioinspired mononuclear Mn complexes for O2 activation and biologically relevant reactions

A general interest in harnessing the oxidizing power of dioxygen (O₂) continues to motivate research efforts on bioinspired and biomimetic complexes to better understand how metalloenzymes mediate these reactions. The ubiquity of Fe- and Cu-based enzymes attracts significant attention and has resulted in many noteworthy developments for abiotic systems interested in direct O₂ reduction and small molecule activation. However, despite the existence of Mn-based metalloenzymes with important O₂-dependent activity, there has been comparatively less focus on the development of these analogues relative to Fe- and Cu-systems. In this Perspective, we summarize important contributions to the development of bioinspired mononuclear Mn complexes for O₂ activation and studies on their reactivity, emphasizing important design parameters in the primary and secondary coordination spheres and outlining mechanistic trends.

Deeper Understanding of Mononuclear Manganese(IV)-Oxo Binding Brønsted and Lewis Acids and the Manganese(IV)-Hydroxide Complex

Binding of Lewis acidic metal ions and Brønsted acid at the metal-oxo group of high-valent metal-oxo complexes enhances their reactivities significantly in oxidation reactions. However, such a binding of Lewis acids and proton at the metal-oxo group has been questioned in several cases and remains to be clarified. Herein, we report the synthesis, characterization, and reactivity studies of a mononuclear manganese(IV)-oxo complex binding triflic acid, {[(dpaq)Mn^IV(O)]-HOTf}⁺ (1-HOTf). First, 1-HOTf was synthesized and characterized using various spectroscopic techniques, including resonance Raman (rRaman) and X-ray absorption spectroscopy/extended X-ray absorption fine structure. In particular, in rRaman experiments, we observed a linear correlation between the Mn-O stretching frequencies of 1-HOTf (e.g., ν_Mn-O at ∼793 cm^-1) and 1-Mⁿ⁺ (Mⁿ⁺ = Ca²⁺, Zn²⁺, Lu³⁺, Al³⁺, or Sc³⁺) and the Lewis acidities of H⁺ and Mⁿ⁺ ions, suggesting that H⁺ and Mⁿ⁺ bind at the metal-oxo moiety of [(dpaq)Mn^IV(O)]⁺. Interestingly, a single-crystal structure of 1-HOTf was obtained by X-ray diffraction analysis, but the structure was not an expected Mn(IV)-oxo complex but a Mn(IV)-hydroxide complex, [(dpaq)Mn^IV(OH)](OTf)₂ (4), with a Mn-O bond distance of 1.8043(19) Å and a Mn-O stretch at 660 cm^-1. More interestingly, 4 reverted to 1-HOTf upon dissolution, demonstrating that 1-HOTf and 4 are interconvertible depending on the physical states, such as 1-HOTf in solution and 4 in isolated solid. The reactivity of 1-HOTf was investigated in hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) and oxygen atom transfer (OAT) reactions and then compared with those of 1-Mⁿ⁺ complexes; an interesting correlation between the Mn-O stretching frequencies of 1-HOTf and 1-Mⁿ⁺ and their reactivities in the OAT and HAT reactions is reported for the first time in this study.

C-H Bond Cleavage by Bioinspired Nonheme Metal Complexes

The functionalization of C-H bonds is one of the most challenging transformations in synthetic chemistry. In biology, these processes are well-known and are achieved with a variety of metalloenzymes, many of which contain a single metal center within their active sites. The most well studied are those with Fe centers, and the emerging experimental data show that high-valent iron oxido species are the intermediates responsible for cleaving the C-H bond. This Forum Article describes the state of this field with an emphasis on nonheme Fe enzymes and current experimental results that provide insights into the properties that make these species capable of C-H bond cleavage. These parameters are also briefly considered in regard to manganese oxido complexes and Cu-containing metalloenzymes. Synthetic iron oxido complexes are discussed to highlight their utility as spectroscopic and mechanistic probes and reagents for C-H bond functionalization. Avenues for future research are also examined.

Proton Switch in the Secondary Coordination Sphere to Control Catalytic Events at the Metal Center: Biomimetic Oxo Transfer Chemistry of Nickel Amidate Complex

High-valent metal-oxo species are key intermediates for the oxygen atom transfer step in the catalytic cycles of many metalloenzymes. While the redox-active metal centers of such enzymes are typically supported by anionic amino acid side chains or porphyrin rings, peptide backbones might function as strong electron-donating ligands to stabilize high oxidation states. To test the feasibility of this idea in synthetic settings, we have prepared a nickel(II) complex of new amido multidentate ligand. The mononuclear nickel complex of this N5 ligand catalyzes epoxidation reactions of a wide range of olefins by using mCPBA as a terminal oxidant. Notably, a remarkably high catalytic efficiency and selectivity were observed for terminal olefin substrates. We found that protonation of the secondary coordination sphere serves as the entry point to the catalytic cycle, in which high-valent nickel species is subsequently formed to carry out oxo-transfer reactions. A conceptually parallel process might allow metalloenzymes to control the catalytic cycle in the primary coordination sphere by using proton switch in the secondary coordination sphere.

A Mononuclear Non-Heme Manganese(III)-Aqua Complex in Oxygen Atom Transfer Reactions via Electron Transfer

Metal-oxygen complexes, such as metal-oxo [M(O^2-)], -hydroxo [M(OH^-)], -peroxo [M(O₂^2-)], -hydroperoxo [M(OOH^-)], and -superoxo [M(O₂^•-)] species, are capable of conducting oxygen atom transfer (OAT) reactions with organic substrates, such as thioanisole (PhSMe) and triphenylphosphine (Ph₃P). However, OAT of metal-aqua complexes, [M(OH₂)]ⁿ⁺, has yet to be reported. We report herein OAT of a mononuclear non-heme Mn(III)-aqua complex, [(dpaq)Mn^III(OH₂)]²⁺ (1, dpaq = 2-[bis(pyridin-2-ylmethyl)]amino-N-quinolin-8-yl-acetamidate), to PhSMe and Ph₃P derivatives for the first time; it is noted that no OAT occurs from the corresponding Mn(III)-hydroxo complex, [(dpaq)Mn^III(OH)]⁺ (2), to the substrates. Mechanistic studies reveal that OAT reaction of 1 occurs via electron transfer from 4-methoxythioanisole to 1 to produce the 4-methoxythioanisole radical cation and [(dpaq)Mn^II(OH₂)]⁺, followed by nucleophilic attack of H₂O in [(dpaq)Mn^II(OH₂)]⁺ to the 4-methoxythioanisole radical cation to produce an OH adduct radical, 2,4-(MeO)₂C₆H₃S^•(OH)Me, which disproportionates or undergoes electron transfer to 1 to yield methyl 4-methoxyphenyl sulfoxide. Formation of the thioanisole radical cation derivatives is detected by the stopped-flow transient absorption measurements in OAT from 1 to 2,4-dimethoxythioanisole and 3,4-dimethoxythioanisole, being compared with that in the photoinduced electron transfer oxidation of PhSMe derivatives, which are detected by laser-induced transient absorption measurements. Similarly, OAT from 1 to Ph₃P occurs via electron transfer from Ph₃P to 1, and the proton effect on the reaction rate has been discussed. The rate constants of electron transfer from electron donors, including PhSMe and Ph₃P derivatives, to 1 are fitted well by the electron transfer driving force dependence of the rate constants predicted by the Marcus theory of outer-sphere electron transfer.

On the Use of Aqueous Metal-Aqua pKa Values as a Descriptor of Lewis Acidity

The behavior of Lewis acidic metal ions in multimetallic systems has become a subject of intense interest in recent years. Parametrizing the behavior of these ions in nonaqueous conditions, commonly used in the field, is challenging due to the lack of direct measures of the Lewis acidity of metal ions in polar organic solvents. Here, we report the use of triphenylphosphine oxide (TPPO) as a ³¹P nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) probe to quantify the Lewis acidity of a library of metal triflate salts using the Gutmann-Beckett method. Plots of the pK_a values of the corresponding metal-aqua species, [M(H₂O)_m]ⁿ⁺, measured in H₂O vs the ³¹P NMR shifts of TPPO in the presence of these metals in deuterated acetonitrile (d₃-MeCN) and deuterated dichloromethane (CD₂Cl₂), display tightly colinear relationships, suggesting similar behavior for these ions in water, d₃-MeCN, and CD₂Cl₂. This colinearity reinforces the utility of the common approach of using the aqueous pK_a values as a descriptor of Lewis acidity, regardless of the solvent used in the immediate experiments, and provides an insight into the usefulness of this descriptor in wide-ranging applications. Titration studies in d₃-MeCN suggest a 1:1 binding of TPPO with monovalent ions, greater than 1:1 binding with divalent ions, and formation of multiple species with the highly Lewis acidic trivalent ions. Together, these data suggest that both aqueous pK_a values and other single-measurement descriptors, while useful, provide only a snapshot of the influence of Lewis acidity on multimetallic chemical systems.

Concerted proton-electron transfer reactions of manganese-hydroxo and manganese-oxo complexes

The enzymes manganese superoxide dismutase and manganese lipoxygenase use MnIII-hydroxo centres to mediate proton-coupled electron transfer (PCET) reactions with substrate. As manganese is earth-abundant and inexpensive, manganese catalysts are of interest for synthetic applications. Recent years have seen exciting reports of enantioselective C-H bond oxidation by Mn catalysts supported by aminopyridyl ligands. Such catalysts offer economic and environmentally-friendly alternatives to conventional reagents and catalysts. Mechanistic studies of synthetic catalysts highlight the role of Mn-oxo motifs in attacking substrate C-H bonds, presumably by a concerted proton-electron transfer (CPET) step. (CPET is a sub-class of PCET, where the proton and electron are transferred in the same step.) Knowledge of geometric and electronic influences for CPET reactions of Mn-hydroxo and Mn-oxo adducts enhances our understanding of biological and synthetic manganese centers and informs the design of new catalysts. In this Feature article, we describe kinetic, spectroscopic, and computational studies of MnIII-hydroxo and MnIV-oxo complexes that provide insight into the basis for the CPET reactivity of these species. Systematic perturbations of the ligand environment around MnIII-hydroxo and MnIV-oxo motifs permit elucidation of structure-activity relationships. For MnIII-hydroxo centers, electron-deficient ligands enhance oxidative reactivity. However, ligand perturbations have competing consequences, as changes in the MnIII/II potential, which represents the electron-transfer component for CPET, is offset by compensating changes in the pKa of the MnII-aqua product, which represents the proton-transfer component for CPET. For MnIV-oxo systems, a multi-state reactivity model inspired the development of significantly more reactive complexes. Weakened equatorial donation to the MnIV-oxo unit results in large rate enhancements for C-H bond oxidation and oxygen-atom transfer reactions. These results demonstrate that the local coordination environment can be rationally changed to enhance reactivity of MnIII-hydroxo and MnIV-oxo adducts.

Effects of Noncovalent Interactions on High-Spin Fe(IV)-Oxido Complexes

High-valent nonheme Fe^IV-oxido species are key intermediates in biological oxidation, and their properties are proposed to be influenced by the unique microenvironments present in protein active sites. Microenvironments are regulated by noncovalent interactions, such as hydrogen bonds (H-bonds) and electrostatic interactions; however, there is little quantitative information about how these interactions affect crucial properties of high valent metal-oxido complexes. To address this knowledge gap, we introduced a series of Fe^IV-oxido complexes that have the same S = 2 spin ground state as those found in nature and then systematically probed the effects of noncovalent interactions on their electronic, structural, and vibrational properties. The key design feature that provides access to these complexes is the new tripodal ligand [poat]^3-, which contains phosphinic amido groups. An important structural aspect of [Fe^IVpoat(O)]^- is the inclusion of an auxiliary site capable of binding a Lewis acid (LA^II); we used this unique feature to further modulate the electrostatic environment around the Fe-oxido unit. Experimentally, studies confirmed that H-bonds and LA^II s can interact directly with the oxido ligand in Fe^IV-oxido complexes, which weakens the Fe═O bond and has an impact on the electronic structure. We found that relatively large vibrational changes in the Fe-oxido unit correlate with small structural changes that could be difficult to measure, especially within a protein active site. Our work demonstrates the important role of noncovalent interactions on the properties of metal complexes, and that these interactions need to be considered when developing effective oxidants.