Biopolymer-Based Nanotechnology Approaches To Deliver Bioactive Compounds for Food Applications: A Perspective on the Past, Present, and Future

Zinc-exchanged montmorillonite clay: A promising slow-release nanofertilizer for rice (Oryza sativa L.)

This study is to examine zinc exchanged montmorillonite (Zn-MMT) as a potential slow release nanofertilizer for rice crop. The effective intercalation of zinc within the montmorillonite inter layers was firmly established via analytical techniques including Zeta potential, FE-SEM (Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy) with Energy Dispersive X-ray Analysis (EDAX), Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM), X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FT-IR). The efficacy of Zn-MMT was examined by evaluating its ability to facilitate controlled zinc release, as confirmed through an incubation study. Subsequently, the kinetics of zinc release was analyzed by different mathematical models such as Zero-order kinetics, First-order kinetics, the Higuchi model, and the Korsmeyer-Peppas model. From the pot culture study spanning 90 days the results indicated that Zn-MMT had significantly high plant height, Leaf Area Index (LAI), Dry Matter Production (DMP), number of tillers per hill, panicles length, increased grain and straw yield, in comparison with conventional zinc sulphate (ZnSO4). Total phenol, total protein and total chlorophyll content were significantly at higher levels with Zn-MMT treated rice crops as compared to conventional fertilizers and control. A similar trend was seen with phytochemicals such as Indole Acetic Acid (IAA), Superoxide Dismutase (SOD) and Carbonic Anhydrase (CA). Notably, rice grains harvested from Zn-MMTtreated crops exhibited significantly higher zinc content than those using other treatments. This Zn-MMT can be confirmed as a better alternative to conventional zinc sulphate fertilizers owing to its slow-release of nutrient into the soil and thus increased zinc use efficiency.

Facile and selective recognition of sulfonylurea pesticides based on the multienzyme-like activities enhancement of nanozymes combining sensor array

Traditional identification methods based on cholinesterase inhibition are limited to recognizing organic phosphorus and carbamate esters, and their response to sulfonylurea pesticides is weak. Residual sulfonylurea pesticides can pose a threat to human health. So, it is very important to develop an effective, rapid and portable method for sulfonylurea pesticides detection. Herein, we first found that sulfonylurea pesticides have activity-enhancing effects on copper-based nanozymes, and then combined them with the array technology to construct a six-channel sensing array method for selectively identifying sulfonylurea pesticides and detecting total concentration of sulfonylurea pesticides (the limit of detection was 0.03 µg/mL). This method has good selectivity towards sulfonylurea pesticides. In addition, a smartphone-based colorimetric paper sensor analysis method was developed to achieve the on-site detection of the total concentration of sulfonylurea pesticides. And this array can also be used for individual differentiation (1-100 µg/mL). Our work not only investigates the specific responses of copper-based nanozymes to sulfonylurea pesticides, but also develops a simple method that contributes to directly detect sulfonylurea pesticides at the source of pollution, providing insights for further research on sulfonylurea pesticides detection and filling the gap in pesticide residue studies.

Biopolymer based nanoparticles and their therapeutic potential in wound healing - A review

Nanoparticles (NPs) have been extensively investigated for their potential in nanomedicine. There is a significant level of enthusiasm about the potential of NPs to bring out a transformative impact on modern healthcare. NPs can serve as effective wound dressings or delivery vehicles due to their antibacterial and pro-wound-healing properties. Biopolymer-based NPs can be manufactured using various food-grade biopolymers, such as proteins, polysaccharides, and synthetic polymers, each offering distinct properties suitable for different applications which include collagen, polycaprolactone, chitosan, alginate, and polylactic acid, etc. Their biodegradable and biocompatible nature renders them ideal nanomaterials for applications in wound healing. Additionally, the nanofibers containing biopolymer-based NPs have shown excellent anti-bacterial and wound healing activity like silver NPs. These NPs represent a paradigm shift in wound healing therapies, offering targeted and personalized solutions for enhanced tissue regeneration and accelerated wound closure. The current review focuses on biopolymer NPs with their applications in wound healing.

Stability of a novel glycosylated peanut protein isolate delivery system loaded with gallic acid

To overcome the shortcomings of gallic acid (GA) application, a novel glycosylated PPI delivery system was prepared for the first time in this study using the interaction between peanut protein isolate (PPI) and GA. The effects of glycosylation on the structural and functional properties of PPI and the functional properties of nanoparticles were investigated. The optimal nanoparticles were prepared at a mass ratio 1:3 of glycosylated PPI to GA with a particle size of 338.351 ± 18.823 nm and a PDI of 0.222 ± 0.039. Hydrophobic interactions were the main force maintaining the nanoparticle structure. The nanoparticles remained stable when exposed to different environmental factors. In addition, the DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities of nanoparticle-embedded GA were 35.94 ± 3.24 % and 62.59 ± 5.07 % after 108 h, which were significantly higher than those of the free GA group (P < 0.05). This study is important for developing GA and hydrophilic polyphenol delivery systems.

Advances in microscopy characterization techniques for lipid nanocarriers in drug delivery: a comprehensive review

This review paper provides an in-depth analysis of the significance of lipid nanocarriers in drug delivery and the crucial role of characterization techniques. It explores various types of lipid nanocarriers and their applications, emphasizing the importance of microscopy-based characterization methods such as light microscopy, confocal microscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The paper also delves into sample preparation, quantitative analysis, challenges, and future directions in the field. The review concludes by underlining the pivotal role of microscopy-based characterization in advancing lipid nanocarrier research and drug delivery technologies.

Zein-Based Nanoparticles as Active Platforms for Sustainable Applications: Recent Advances and Perspectives

Nanomaterials, due to their unique structural and functional features, are widely investigated for potential applications in a wide range of industrial sectors. In this context, protein-based nanoparticles, given proteins' abundance, non-toxicity, and stability, offer a promising and sustainable methodology for encapsulation and protection, and can be used in engineered nanocarriers that are capable of releasing active compounds on demand. Zein is a plant-based protein extracted from corn, and it is biocompatible, biodegradable, and amphiphilic. Several approaches and technologies are currently involved in zein-based nanoparticle preparation, such as antisolvent precipitation, spray drying, supercritical processes, coacervation, and emulsion procedures. Thanks to their peculiar characteristics, zein-based nanoparticles are widely used as nanocarriers of active compounds in targeted application fields such as drug delivery, bioimaging, or soft tissue engineering, as reported by others. The main goal of this review is to investigate the use of zein-based nanocarriers for different advanced applications including food/food packaging, cosmetics, and agriculture, which are attracting researchers' efforts, and to exploit the future potential development of zein NPs in the field of cultural heritage, which is still relatively unexplored. Moreover, the presented overview focuses on several preparation methods (i.e., antisolvent processes, spry drying), correlating the different analyzed methodologies to NPs' structural and functional properties and their capability to act as carriers of bioactive compounds, both to preserve their activity and to tune their release in specific working conditions.

Structurally Modified Polysaccharides: Physicochemical Properties, Biological Activities, Structure-Activity Relationship, and Applications

Polysaccharides are an important class of biomolecules derived from several sources. However, the inherent structure of polysaccharides prevents them from exhibiting favorable physicochemical properties, which restricts their development in agriculture, industry, food, and biomedicine. This paper systematically summarizes the changes in the primary and advanced structures of modified polysaccharides, and focuses on the effects of various modification methods on the hydrophobicity, rheological properties, emulsifying properties, antioxidant activity, hypoglycemic, and hypolipidemic activities of polysaccharides. Then there is a list the applications of modified polysaccharides in treating heavy metal pollutants, purifying water resources, improving beverage stability and bread quality, and precisely delivering the drug. When summarized and reviewed, the information above can shed further light on the relationship between polysaccharide structure and function. Determining the structure-activity relationship provides a scientific basis for the direction of molecular modifications of polysaccharides.

Detection of Biomarkers through Functionalized Polymers

Over the past decade, there has been a rising interest in utilizing functionalized porous polymers for sensor applications. By incorporating functional groups into nanostructured materials like hydrogels, nanosheets, and nanopores, exciting new opportunities have emerged for biomarker detection. The ability of functionalized polymers to undergo physical changes and deformations makes them perfect for modulating optical signals. This chemical mechanism enables the creation of biocompatible sensors for in situ biomarker measurement. Here a comprehensive overview of the current publication trends is provided in functionalized polymers, encompassing functional groups that can induce measurable physical deformations. It explores various materials categorized based on their detection targets, which include proteins, carbohydrates, ions, and deoxyribonucleic acid. As such, this work serves as a valuable reference for the development of functionalized polymer-based sensors.

Zingiber officinale Roscoe Essential Oils-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles with Enhanced Bactericidal Efficacy against Burkholderia glumae in Rice

Ginger essential oils (GEO) shows exceptional antimicrobial properties against plant pathogens. Due to its high volatility and low stability, it requires encapsulation to retain its effective properties. The GEO-Chitosan (GEO-CS) nanobactericide was developed using the ionic gelation method. The nanobactericides show particle diameters of 465, 28, 35, 48 and 500 nm when sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP) concentrations used in the preparation were 0.0, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 4.0 %, respectively. The X-ray diffraction and the UV-vis studies revealed that the GEO was encapsulated into the chitosan nanoparticles with an encapsulation efficiency of around 46 % and a loading capacity of 27-34 %. The antibacterial activity of GEO-chitosan nanobactericide against Burkholderia glumae (Bg) was found to be 7.5-11.8 mm, with minimum inhibitory concentration and minimum bactericidal concentration values of 15.6 μl/mL and 31.25 μl/mL, respectively. Hence, these findings indicate that the prepared GEO-CS nanobactericides were found to be effective against Bg. This preliminary study is toward the development of new agronanobactericides using a natural product to control Bg.

Biogenic engineered nanomaterials for enhancing bioavailability via developing nano-iron-fortified smart foods: advances, insight, and prospects of nanobionics in fortification of food

Iron deficiency is a significant cause of iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Treatment of IDA is challenging due to several challenges, including low target bioavailability, low palatability, poor pharmacokinetics, and extended therapeutic regimes. Nanotechnology holds the promise of revolutionizing the management and treatment of IDA. Smart biogenic engineered nanomaterials (BENMs) such as lipids, protein, carbohydrates, and complex nanomaterials have been the subject of extensive research and opened new avenues for people and the planet due to their enhanced physicochemical, rheological, optoelectronic, thermomechanical, biological, magnetic, and nutritional properties. Additionally, they show eco-sustainability, low biotoxicity, active targeting, enhanced permeation and retention, and stimuli-responsive characteristics. We examine the opportunities offered by emerging smart BENMs for the treatment of iron deficiency anemia by utilizing iron-fortified smart foods. We review the progress made so far and other future directions to maximize the impact of smart nanofortification on the global population. The toxicity effects are also discussed with commercialization challenges.

Role of biotechnology in the advancement of biodegradable polymers and functionalized additives for food packaging systems

Biodegradable polymers have shown enormous potential for application in food packaging systems and offer solutions to mitigate the challenges of single-use plastics. Over the past decade, advances in fermentation technology, metabolic engineering of microorganisms, and synthetic biology have enabled the optimization and functionalization of biodegradable polymers for food packaging application. This article provides an overview of the biotechnological approaches/methods used in advancing the production of biopolymers and summarizes the recent developments in the application of functionalized biopolymers for decision-making and quality control. It discusses the current applications and future perspectives of extracellular biopolymers in food systems. Finally, this review highlights the complexities of public acceptance, safety, and government regulations and legislations.

Designing Gastric-Stable Adsorption Layers by Whey Protein-Pectin Complexation at the Oil-Water Interface

This work aims to design gastric-stable emulsions with food-grade biopolymers using a novel multiscale approach. The adsorption layer formation at the oil-water interface was based on opposite charge interactions between whey proteins and pectin (with different esterification levels) at pH 3.0 by a sequential adsorption method. The interfacial assembly and disassembly (interfacial complexation, proteolysis, lipolysis) during in vitro gastric digestion were evaluated using a quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring, ζ-potential, dynamic interfacial tension, and interfacial dilatational rheology. Besides, the evolution of the particle size and microstructure of bulk emulsions during the digestion was investigated by static light scattering and light microscopy. Compared with whey protein isolate (WPI)-stabilized emulsions, the presence of an additional pectin layer can prevent or at least largely delay gastric destabilization (giving rise to coalescence or/and oiling off). Especially, the esterification degree of the pectin used was found to largely affect the emulsion stability upon gastric digestion.

Preparation and characterization of novel composite nanoparticles using zein and hyaluronic acid for efficient delivery of naringenin

Hyaluronic acid (HA), a polymer mainly found in animal tissues, plays an important role in food research. In this study, it was used for delivery improvement of naringenin (NAR) by loading it into zein nanoparticles using an anti-solvent precipitation method. The optimal Nar/zein-HA nanoparticles were uniformly spherical with particle sizes of 209.2 ± 1.9 nm, polydispersity indexes of 0.146 ± 0.032 and zeta-potentials of -19.0 ± 0.7 mV. Moreover, the microstructure of Nar/zein-HA nanoparticles was maintained primarily by hydrophobic, electrostatic, and hydrogen-bonding interactions. Furthermore, Nar/zein-HA nanoparticles showed favorable physical stability and enhanced encapsulation efficiency. Additionally, the antioxidant capacity and release in simulated gastrointestinal digestion of Nar were significantly improved. Overall, these findings indicate that the delivery efficiency of Nar was improved by formulation of ternary nanoparticles.

Improving the biological activities of astaxanthin using targeted delivery systems

The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of astaxanthin (AST) enable it to protect against oxidative stress-related and inflammatory diseases with a range of biological effects. These activities provide the potential to develop healthier food products. Therefore, it would be beneficial to design delivery systems for AST to overcome its low stability, control its release, and/or improve its bioavailability. This review discusses the basis for AST's various biological activities and the factors limiting these activities, including stability, solubility, and bioavailability. It also discusses the different systems available for the targeted delivery of AST and their applications in enhancing the biological activity of AST. These include systems that are candidates for preventive and therapeutic effects, which include nerves, liver, and skin, particularly for possible cancer reduction. Targeted delivery of AST to specific regions of the gastrointestinal tract, or more selectively to target tissues and cells, can be achieved using targeted delivery systems to increase the biological activities of AST.

The thermal resistance and targeting release of zein-sodium alginate binary complexes as a vehicle for the oral delivery of riboflavin

Riboflavin (RF) is one kind of vitamin B, which has low bioavailability due to the low water solubility and the high photosensitivity during food processing and storage. The anti-solvent precipitation method was applied to fabricate a zein-sodium alginate (SA) binary complexes delivery system with the loading of RF, which was aimed to enhance the delivery efficiency, stability, and controlled release of RF in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. The formation mechanism, physicochemical properties as well as the digestion behaviors were investigated. The incorporation of SA significantly increased the diameter and decreased the surface positive charge of the nanoparticles. The surface morphology of the nanoparticles was characterized using the scanning electron microscope. The FTIR analysis revealed that the electrostatic attraction was the dominant binding force in the formation of the zein-SA binary complexes nanoparticles. In addition, the study on the in vitro release process showed that the zein-SA nanoparticles could delay the release of the RF under the simulated GI tract conditions, which improved their oral bioavailability. In summary, the zein-SA nanoparticle is an effective vehicle for the oral delivery of RF as well as other vitamins and bioactives in the applications of food and nutrition.

Synthesis, characterization and in vitro digestion of folate conjugated chitosan-loaded proanthocyanidins nanoparticles

Proanthocyanidins have significant biological activity and pharmacological effects and are widely used in food, medicine, and cosmetics. Chitosan nanoparticles loaded with proanthocyanidins have been proven to improve their biological activity. Given some deficiencies of chitosan (CS), the modification of chitosan by folic acid (FA) can obtain new variants with different functions. For this objective, the folic acid conjugated chitosan was designed, and in vitro properties of proanthocyanidins loaded nanoparticles were studied systemically. Firstly, folic acid-chitosan conjugate (FA-CS) was synthesized and characterized. Folate-coupled chitosan-loaded proanthocyanidin nanoparticles (PC-CS/FA-NPs) were prepared by ionic gelation technique using FA-CS as a carrier. The successful nanoparticle synthesis was characterized by dynamic light scattering (DLS) techniques and Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy. The synthesized nanoparticles exhibited a spherical shape and smooth and uniform distribution features with a size range of less than 300 nm, as observed by a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Meanwhile, PC-CS/FA-NPs had good thermal and gastrointestinal digestive stability and had a protective effect on AAPH-induced erythrocyte oxidative hemolysis. In conclusion, folic acid decorated chitosan nanoparticles improved the stability and bioavailability of proanthocyanidins in gastrointestinal digestion.

Fabrication and characterization of the H/J-type aggregates astaxanthin/bovine serum albumin/chitosan nanoparticles

Astaxanthin is a natural liposoluble ketocarotenoid with various biological activities. Hydrophobic astaxanthin with C_2h symmetry can self-assembly form H-type aggregates and J-type aggregates in hydrated polar solvents. However, astaxanthin and its aggregates are limited by its water insolubility and chemical instability. Here, the biological macromolecules bovine serum albumin (BSA) and chitosan were chosen as protein-polysaccharides based delivery systems for astaxanthin aggregates by molecular self-assembly method. The precise prepared H-ABC-NPs and J-ABC-NPs suspensions were both near spheres with hydrodynamic size around 281 ± 9 nm and 368 ± 5 nm and zeta potentials around +26 mV and +30 mV, respectively. Two types of astaxanthin aggregates were distinguished, water-dispersible, and stable in nanocarriers through UV-vis spectra observation. The encapsulation efficiency of the astaxanthin in ABC-NPs was above 90 %. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) and circular dichroism (CD) analyses indicated that the dominant driving forces of ABC-NPs formation mainly included electrostatic, hydrophobic interactions and hydrogen bonding. These results offer an elegant opportunity for the protein-polysaccharides delivery systems, and provide an important perspective for applying novel water-dispersed astaxanthin aggregates products in nutrition and medicine industry.

Marine macroalgae polysaccharides-based nanomaterials: an overview with respect to nanoscience applications

Background

Exploration of marine macroalgae poly-saccharide-based nanomaterials is emerging in the nanotechnology field, such as wound dressing, water treatment, environmental engineering, biosensor, and food technology.

Main body

In this article, the current innovation and encroachments of marine macroalgae polysaccharide-based nanoparticles (NPs), and their promising opportunities, for future prospect in different industries are briefly reviewed. The extraction and advancement of various natural sources from marine polysaccharides, including carrageenan, agarose, fucoidan, and ulvan, are highlighted in order to provide a wide range of impacts on the nanofood technology. Further, seaweed or marine macroalgae is an unexploited natural source of polysaccharides, which involves numerous different phytonutrients in the outermost layer of the cell and is rich in sulphated polysaccharides (SP), SP-based nanomaterial which has an enhanced potential value in the nanotechnology field.

Conclusion

At the end of this article, the promising prospect of SP-based NPs and their applications in the food sector is briefly addressed.

Natural carriers: Recent advances in their use to improve the stability and bioaccessibility of food active compounds

In the last decades, the incorporation of bioactive compounds in food supplements aroused the attention of scientists. However, these ingredients often exhibit both low solubility and stability and their poor bioaccessibility within the gastrointestinal tract limits their effectiveness. To overcome these drawbacks, many carriers have been investigated for encapsulating nutraceuticals and enhancing their bioavailability. It is note that several different vegetable wall materials have been applied to build delivery systems. Considering their encapsulation mechanism, lipid and protein-based carriers display specific interaction patterns with bioactives, whereas polysaccharidic-based carriers can entrap them by creating porous highly stable networks. To maximize the encapsulation efficiency, mixed systems are very promising. Following the current goal of using natural and sustainable ingredients, only a limited number of studies about the isolation of new ingredients from agro-food waste are available. In this review, a comprehensive overview of the state of art in the development of innovative natural lipid-, protein- and polysaccharide-based plant carriers is presented, focusing on their application as food active compounds. Different aspects to be considered in the design of delivery systems are discussed, including the carrier structure and chemical features, the interaction between the encapsulating and the core material, and the parameters affecting bioactives entrapment.

Synthesis of two different zinc oxide nanoflowers and comparison of antioxidant and photocatalytic activity

Nanoflowers are a newly developed class of nanoparticles that show flower-like structures and attract much attention due to their simple preparation methods, high stability, and increased efficiency. The aim of the study is to investigate a strong alternative to reduce the severity of infection and increase the treatment of wastewater by exhibiting biofilm inhibition in medical and environmental applications of the ZnO-NFs with two different shapes. ZnO-NFs were synthesized by two different processes hydrothermal method (named ZnO-NF1) and the precipitation method (named ZnO-NF2). ZnO-NFs produced by two different synthesis methods were compared for the photocatalytic and antioxidant efficiency. The effects of Reactive Red 180 (RR180) and Basic Red 18 (BR18) dyes concentration, photocatalyst amount, and reaction time were investigated on dye removal efficiency for photocatalytic experiments. The color was completely removed for 25 mg/L BR18 and RR180 dyes for 75 min and 90 min, respectively, using 1.5 g/L photocatalyst amount using ZnO-NF1. However, 59.18% dye removal efficiency was obtained for 90 min by using a 1.5 g/L ZnO-NF2 photocatalyst for 25 mg/L BR18 dye removal, while a dye removal efficiency of 90.00% was detected for 90 min using 2 g/L ZnO-NF2 for 25 mg/L RR180 dye. Then, comparison of general properties such as antibacterial, antibiofilm, microbial cell viability, DNA fragmentation, antioxidant activities, and antimicrobial photodynamic therapy of ZnO-NFs were investigated. The antioxidant activity of ZnO-NF2 was found to be higher than ZnO-NF1 at each concentration (82.32% and 87.18% for ZnO-NF1 and ZnO-NF2, respectively, at 200 mg/mL).

Polysaccharide-based porous biopolymers for enhanced bioaccessibility and bioavailability of bioactive food compounds: Challenges, advances, and opportunities

Bioactive food compounds, such as lycopene, curcumin, phytosterols, and resveratrol, have received great attention due to their potential health benefits. However, these bioactive compounds (BCs) have poor chemical stability during processing and low bioavailability after consumption. Several delivery systems have been proposed for enhancing their stability and bioavailability. Among these methods, porous biopolymers have emerged as alternative encapsulation materials, as they have superior properties like high surface area, porosity, and tunable surface chemistry to entrap BCs. This reduces the crystallinity (especially for the lipophilic ones) and particle size, and in turn, increases solubilization and bioavailability. Also, loading BCs into the porous matrix can protect them against environmental stresses such as light, heat, oxygen, and pH. This review introduces polysaccharide-based porous biopolymers for improving the bioaccessibility/bioavailability of bioactive food compounds and discusses their recent applications in the food industry. First, bioaccessibility and bioavailability are described with a special emphasis on the factors affecting them. Then, porous biopolymer fabrication methods, including supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO₂ ) drying, freeze-drying, and electrospinning and electrospraying, are thoroughly discussed. Finally, common polysaccharide-based biopolymers (i.e., starch, nanocellulose, alginate, and pectin) used for generating porous materials are reviewed, and their current and potential future food applications are critically discussed.

Advances in Nanofabrication Technology for Nutraceuticals: New Insights and Future Trends

Bioactive components such as polyphenolics, flavonoids, bioactive peptides, pigments, and essential fatty acids were known to ward off some deadliest diseases. Nutraceuticals are those beneficial compounds that may be food or part of food that has come up with medical or health benefits. Nanoencapsulation and nanofabricated delivery systems are an imminent approach in the field of food sciences. The sustainable fabrication of nutraceuticals and biocompatible active components indisputably enhances the food grade and promotes good health. Nanofabricated delivery systems include carbohydrates-based, lipids (solid and liquid), and proteins-based delivery systems. Solid nano-delivery systems include lipid nanoparticles. Liquid nano-delivery systems include nanoliposomes and nanoemulsions. Physicochemical properties of nanoparticles such as size, charge, hydrophobicity, and targeting molecules affect the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of nano delivery systems. Advance research in toxicity studies is necessary to ensure the safety of the nanofabricated delivery systems, as the safety of nano delivery systems for use in food applications is unknown. Therefore, improved nanotechnology could play a pivotal role in developing functional foods, a contemporary concept assuring the consumers to provide programmed, high-priced, and high-quality research toward nanofabricated delivery systems.

Improved paclitaxel delivery with PEG-b-PLA/zein nanoparticles prepared via flash nanoprecipitation

Polymeric micelle is a promising vehicle to improve the bioavailability and clinical outcomes of paclitaxel (PTX) which has been proven effective in the treatment of a wide range of cancers. However, conventional PTX formulation with the amphiphilic PEG-b-PLA usually suffers from insufficient PTX loading, low stability of PTX-micelles, and rapid PTX release due to low compatibility between PTX and PLA, limiting its clinical application. In this study, a novel nanoparticle platform was developed to improve the stability of PTX-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) and the delivery efficacy of PTX by integrating the flash nanoprecipitation (FNP) technique and a combination of amphiphilic PEG-PLA and super hydrophobic zein. The incorporation of zein led to the formation of distinct hydrophobic interiors of NPs which enhanced the interaction between PTX and NPs, therefore improving the encapsulation efficiency of PTX and sustained drug release compared with PEG-PLA micelles without zein. In addition, FNP allowed facile fabrication of PTX-NPs with smaller sizes and higher stability. These PTX-NPs showed superior sustained release of PTX and good cancer cell-killing in vitro. Among them, PTX-5k-16k-1Z NPs exhibited excellent biosafety and anti-tumor efficacy in a xenograft tumor model in mice, suggesting great potential in the delivery of hydrophobic drugs for cancer therapy.

Sustainable agronomic response of carbon quantum dots on Allium sativum: Translocation, physiological responses and alternations in chromosomal aberrations

The revolutionary growth in the usage of carbon quantum dots (CQDs) in different areas have ultimately directed their discharge in the environment and further augmented the exposure of agricultural crops to these released particles. Therefore, the aim of current study is to evaluate the uptake, translocation and phytotoxicity of blue emissive CQDs on Allium sativum plant. The genotoxicity and cytotoxicity assessment of CQDs towards Allium sativum roots was estimated as function of three different concentrations. Considering the role of CQDs in promoting seed germination at 50 ppm concentration, a greenhouse experiment was performed to evaluate their effect on plant growth. Systematic investigations have shown the translocation of CQDs and their physiological response in terms of increased shoot length wherein P-CQDs exhibited more accumulation into Allium sativum parts. Our investigations unfold the opportunity to utilize Aegle marmelos fruit derived CQDs as a growth regulator in variety of other food plants.

Recent development in nanoencapsulation and delivery of natural bioactives through chitosan scaffolds for various biological applications

Nowadays, nano/micro-encapsulation as a pioneering technique may significantly improve the bioavailability and durability of Natural bioactives. For this purpose, chitosan as a bioactive cationic natural polysaccharide has been frequently used as a carrier because of its distinct chemical and biological properties, including polycationic nature, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. Moreover, polysaccharide-based nano/micro-formulations are a new and extensive trend in scientific research and development in the disciplines of biomedicine, bioorganic/ medicinal chemistry, pharmaceutics, agrochemistry, and the food industry. It promises a new paradigm in drug delivery systems and nanocarrier formulations. This review aims to summarize current developments in approaches for designing innovative chitosan micro/nano-matrix, with an emphasis on the encapsulation of natural bioactives. The special emphasis led to a detailed integrative scientific achievement of the functionalities and abilities for encapsulating natural bioactives and mechanisms regulated in vitro/in vivo release in various biological/physiological environments.

In vitro cytocompatibility assessment and antibacterial effects of quercetin encapsulated alginate/chitosan nanoparticle

The present work aims at evaluating the in vitro biocompatibility, antibacterial activity and antioxidant capacity of the fabricated and optimized Alginate/Chitosan nanoparticles (ALG/CSNPs) and quercetin loaded Alginate/Chitosan nanoparticles (Q-ALG/CSNPs) with an improved biological efficacy on the hydrophobic flavonoid.The physicochemical properties were determined by TEM and FTIR analysis. The nanoparticles evaluated for the encapsulation of quercetin exerted % encapsulation efficiency (EE) that varied between 76 and 82.4 % and loading capacity (LC) from 31 to 46.5 %. Potential cytotoxicity of the ALG/CSNPs and Q-ALG/CSNPs upon L929 fibroblast cell line was evaluated by MTT reduction Assay and expressed as % cell viability. The in vitro antibacterial property was studied by well diffusion method against gram-positive bacteria Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 25925) and gram-negative bacteria Escherichia coli (ATCC 25923). The inhibitory efficacy by scavenging free radical intermediates was evaluated by 1,1, diphenyl 2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. The results of in vitro cytotoxicity showed biocompatibility towards L929 cells. Quercetin loaded Alginate/Chitosan nanoparticles inhibited the growth of microorganisms than pure quercetin. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging results have shown a high level of antioxidant property for encapsulated Quercetin in Alginate/Chitosan nanoparticles compared to free Quercetin. The findings of our study suggest that the developed ALG/CSNPs and Q-ALG/CSNPs possess the prerequisites and be proposed as a suitable system for delivering quercetin with enhanced therapeutic effectuality.

Pharmaceutical and drug delivery applications of chitosan biopolymer and its modified nanocomposite: A review

Due to their improved structural and functional properties as well as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and nontoxicity, chitosan and its nanoparticles are currently grasping the interest of researchers. Although numerous attempts have been made to apply chitosan and its derivatives to biological applications, few have reported in achieving its pharmacological and drug delivery. The goal of the current work is to provide a summary of the chitosan biopolymer's physical, chemical, and biological properties as well as its synthesis of nanoparticles and characterization of its modified nanocomposites. The drug delivery method and pharmaceutical applications of chitosan biopolymer and its modified nanocomposites are examined in further detail in this research. We will introduce also about the most current publications in this field of study as well as its recent expansion.

pH-driven self-assembly of alcohol-free curcumin-loaded zein-propylene glycol alginate complex nanoparticles

This study aimed to prepare alcohol-free curcumin-loaded zein-propylene glycol alginate (zein-PGA-Cur) nanoparticles using the pH-driven method to enhance the bioavailability and physicochemical stability of curcumin. The prepared zein-PGA-Cur nanoparticles exhibited a small size (360 nm) and negative zeta-potential (-5.8 mV), as well as excellent physical stability, under storage conditions of pH 4.0 and temperature at 4 °C for 30 days. In addition, the Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy results demonstrated that the main interactions of pH-driven for the formation of zein-PGA-Cur nanoparticles were hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic, and electrostatic interactions. Fluorescence spectroscopy revealed that the curcumin-induced fluorescence quenching of zein was static. Circular Dichroism spectroscopy demonstrated that the pH-driven method mainly decreased the β-sheet structure of zein from 3.9 % to 1.4 %. Furthermore, the HT-29 colorectal adenocarcinoma cells viability experiments revealed that the prepared zein-PGA-Cur nanoparticles exhibited excellent biocompatibility. In vivo rat experiments also demonstrated that the prepared nanoparticles resulted in a higher plasma concentration of curcumin, representing a 7.2-fold enhancement in bioavailability compared with pure curcumin crystals. The findings of this study will provide a green and energy-saving method for the development of insoluble drug self-assembly systems and promote their wider applications in drug delivery.

Nano-enabled plant-based colloidal delivery systems for bioactive agents in foods: Design, formulation, and application

Consumers are becoming increasingly aware of the impact of their dietary choices on the environment, animal welfare, and health, which is causing many of them to adopt more plant-based diets. For this reason, many sectors of the food industry are reformulating their products to contain more plant-based ingredients. This article describes recent research on the formation and application of nano-enabled colloidal delivery systems formulated from plant-based ingredients, such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and phospholipids. These delivery systems include nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoliposomes, nanophytosomes, and biopolymer nanoparticles. The composition, size, structure, and charge of the particles in these delivery systems can be manipulated to create novel or improved functionalities, such as improved robustness, higher optical clarity, controlled release, and increased bioavailability. There have been major advances in the design, assembly, and application of plant-based edible nanoparticles within the food industry over the past decade or so. As a result, there are now a wide range of different options available for creating delivery systems for specific applications. In the future, it will be important to establish whether these formulations can be produced using economically viable methods and provide the desired functionality in real-life applications.

Chitosan nanoparticles containing the insecticide dimethoate: A new approach in the reduction of harmful ecotoxicological effects

Organophosphate insecticides such as dimethoate (DMT) are widely used in agriculture. As a side effect, however, these insecticides contaminate bodies of water, resulting in damage to aquatic organisms. The development of nanopesticides may be an innovative alternative in the control of agricultural pests, increasing effectiveness and reducing their toxicological effects. Based upon this, the present study has investigated encapsulated DMT in alginate chitosan nanoparticles (nanoDMT) and evaluated its toxicological effects on non-target organisms. The nanoparticles were characterized by DLS, NTA and AFM, as well as being evaluated by the release profile. Nanoparticle toxicity was also evaluated in comparison with DMT, empty nanoparticles and DMT (NP + DMT), and commercial formulations (cDMT), in the embryos and larvae of Danio rerio (zebrafish) according to lethality, morphology, and behavior. The nanoparticle control (NP) showed hydrodynamic size values of 283 ± 4 nm, a PDI of 0.5 ± 0.05 and a zeta potential of -31 ± 0.4 mV. For nanoparticles containing dimethoate, the nanoparticles showed 301 ± 7 nm size values, a PDI of 0.45 ± 0.02, a zeta potential of -27.9 ± 0.2 mV, and an encapsulation of 75 ± 0.32%, with slow-release overtime (52% after 48 h). The AFM images showed that both types of nanoparticles showed spherical morphology. Major toxic effects on embryo larval development were observed in commercial dimethoate exposure followed by the technical pesticide, predominantly in the highest tested concentrations. With regard to the toxic effects of sodium alginate/chitosan, although there was an increase for LC₅₀-96 h concerning the technical dimethoate, the behavior of the larvae was not affected. The data obtained demonstrate that nanoencapsulated dimethoate reduces the toxicity of insecticides on zebrafish larvae, suggesting that nanoencapsulation may be safer for non-target species, by eliminating collateral effects and thus promoting sustainable agriculture.

Utilization of Nanotechnology to Improve the Application and Bioavailability of Phytochemicals Derived from Waste Streams

Phytochemicals are relatively small molecular species found in edible plants that may exhibit a diverse range of techno- and biofunctional attributes. In particular, there has been great interest in the identification, isolation, and utilization of dietary phytochemicals that can be used as natural pigments, antioxidants, or antimicrobials or that may improve human health and wellbeing by preventing chronic diseases, such as cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, obesity, and cancer. Relatively high levels of these phytochemicals are often present in the waste streams produced by the food and agriculture industry, such as the peels, stems, roots, or leaves of plants, that are normally discarded or turned into animal foods. From an economic and environmental perspective, it would be advantageous to convert these waste streams into value-added functional ingredients, which is consistent with the creation of a more circular economy. Bioactive phytochemicals can be isolated from agricultural and food waste streams using green extraction methods and then incorporated into plant-based functional foods or biodegradable active packaging materials. The utilization of phytochemicals in the food industry is often challenging. They may chemically degrade in the presence of light, heat, oxygen, and some pH conditions, thereby altering their biological activity. They may have low solubility in aqueous solutions and gastrointestinal fluids, thereby making them difficult to introduce into foods and leading to a low bioavailability. These challenges can sometimes be overcome using nanoencapsulation, which involves trapping the phytochemicals inside tiny food-grade particles. These nanoparticles may be assembled from edible lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and/or surfactants and include nanoemulsions, solid lipid nanoparticles, nanoliposomes, and biopolymer nanoparticles. In this manuscript, we review a number of important phytochemicals and nanoencapsulation methods used to improve their efficacy.

Preparation, characterization and antioxidant activity of sinapic acid grafted chitosan and its application with casein as a nanoscale delivery system for black rice anthocyanins

Anthocyanins (ACNs) have attracted considerable research attention because of their excellent health benefits, but their low stability and bioavailability limit their applications. In this study, sinapic acid-grafted-chitosan (SA-g-CS) conjugate was synthesized by grafting SA onto CS via a free radical mediated method. Nanoparticles were prepared using casein (CA) together with SA-g-CS to improve the performance and sustained release of black rice anthocyanins (BRA). The results of UV-Vis, FTIR and ¹H NMR spectra for SA-g-CS conjugates demonstrated the successful grafting of SA onto CS. The results of DPPH, ABTS and ferric ion reducing antioxidant power assays showed that the SA-g-CS conjugates had strong antioxidant capacities, and the higher the pH of the grafting reaction system, the stronger the antioxidant capacity of the conjugates. X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy analyses showed that the crystallographic property and microstructure of CS were improved by the grafting of SA. Compared with BRA loaded nanoparticles prepared with CA alone or the combination of CS and CA, the BRA loaded nanoparticles constructed by SA-g-CS and CA have smaller particle size, better dispersion, encapsulation efficiency and sustained-release property. These results provided great potential for the application of phenolic acid grafted CS in stabilizing ACNs.

Novel Materials for Urban Farming

Scarcity of natural resources, shifting demographics, climate change, and increasing waste are four major challenges in the quest to feed the exploding world population. These challenges serve as the impetus to harness novel technologies to improve agriculture, productivity, and sustainability. Urban farming has several advantages over conventional farming: higher productivity, improved sustainability, and the ability to provide fresh food all year round. Novel materials are key to accelerating the evolution of urban farming - with their ability to facilitate controlled release of nutrients and pesticides, improved seed health, substrates with better water retention capability, more efficient recycling of agricultural waste, and precise plant health monitoring. Materials science enables environmental sustainability and higher harvest yields in urban farms. Here, Singapore is used as an example of a land-scarce city where urban farming may be the solution for future food production. Potential research directions and challenges in urban farming are highlighted, and how material optimization and innovation drive the development of urban farming to meet national and global food demands is briefly discussed. This review serves as a guide for researchers and a reference for stakeholders of urban farms, policy makers, and other interested parties.

Antimicrobial effects of thymol-loaded phytoglycogen/zein nanocomplexes against foodborne pathogens on fresh produce

In this study, thymol-loaded hydrophobically modified phytoglycogen/zein nanocomplexes with a particle size around 100 nm were developed for improving microbial safety of fresh produce. The antimicrobial activities, including the determination of minimum inhibitory and bactericidal concentration, growth kinetic curves, and inhibition zone of the nanocomplexes against foodborne pathogens (Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella enteritidis, and Escherichia coli) were evaluated. The results showed that the antimicrobial activities of the nanocomplexes were significantly stronger than that of free thymol control (without encapsulation), and the antimicrobial efficacy remained unchanged after storage at 4 °C for 60 days. The morphological results from atomic force microscope revealed that small micellar blebs were formed at the surface of bacteria after treatment with nanocomplexes and the gradual disappearance of the cell boundary indicated the occurrence of cytolysis. The potential applications of this nanocomplex as disinfectant agent in wash water were evaluated on different types of fresh produce (lettuce, cantaloupe, and strawberries). Notably, the nanocomplexes also demonstrated efficacy in biofilm removal. Findings from this study clearly demonstrated that the thymol-loaded nanocomplexes hold promising potential for the disinfection of fresh produce to improve their microbial safety and quality.

Preparation and characterization of Sargassum pallidum polysaccharide nanoparticles with enhanced antioxidant activity and adsorption capacity

Sargassum pallidum polysaccharide nanoparticle (nSPP-30) was prepared via antisolvent precipitation method and the preparation conditions were optimized. The effects of nanocrystallization on the structure and biological activities of S. pallidum polysaccharide were investigated. Under the optimal preparation condition, the average particle size, polydispersity index (PDI), and ξ-potential of nSPP-30 were 229.63 nm, 0.407, and -28.43 mV, respectively. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analyses indicated that nanocrystallization did not change primary and crystal structures of S. pallidum polysaccharide. However, nanocrystallization could improve the swelling, thermodynamic, and antioxidant properties of S. pallidum polysaccharide. In addition, the thymol adsorption capacity of nSPP-30 was enhanced as compared to the corresponding polysaccharide. These results suggest that nSPP-30 can be developed as a potential antioxidant or natural nano-carrier to encapsulate thymol for practical applications.

A review on plant polysaccharide based on drug delivery system for construction and application, with emphasis on traditional Chinese medicine polysaccharide

Carbohydrate polymers with unique chemical composition, molecular weight and functional chemical groups show multiple potentials in drug delivery. Most carbohydrate polymers such as plant polysaccharides exhibit advantages of biodegradability, ease of modification, low immunogenicity and low toxicity. They can be conjugated, cross-linked or functionally modified, and then used as nanocarrier materials. Polysaccharide drug delivery system can avoid the phagocytosis of the reticuloendothelial system, prevent the degradation of biomolecules, and increase the bioavailability of small molecules, thus exerting effective therapeutic effects. Therefore, they have been fully explored. In this paper, we reviewed the construction methods of drug delivery systems based on carbohydrate polymers (astragalus polysaccharide, angelica polysaccharide, lycium barbarum polysaccharide, ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide, bletilla polysaccharide, glycyrrhiza polysaccharide, and epimedium polysaccharides, etc). The application of polysaccharide drug delivery systems to deliver small molecule chemotherapeutic drugs, gene drugs, and metal ion drugs was also briefly introduced. At the same time, the role of the polysaccharide drug delivery system in tumor treatment, targeted therapy, and wound healing was discussed. In addition, the research of polysaccharide delivery systems based on the therapeutic efficacy of traditional Chinese medicine was also summarized and prospected.

Chondroitin sulfate deposited on foxtail millet prolamin/caseinate nanoparticles to improve physicochemical properties and enhance cancer therapeutic effects

In this study, curcumin (Cur)-loaded chondroitin sulfate (CS)-sodium caseinate (NaCas)-stabilized foxtail millet prolamin (FP) composite nanoparticles (NPs) were fabricated via a one-pot process. FP is capable of self-assembly via liquid antisolvent precipitation under neutral and alkaline conditions (pH 7.0-11.0). Under this condition, the microstructures of hydrophobic FP cores, amphiphilic NaCas and hydrophilic CS shells were fabricated readily by a one-pot method. With an optimal FP/NaCas/CS weight ratio of 3 : 2 : 4, FP-NaCas-CS NPs shared globular microstructures at about 145 nm, and hydrophobic interactions, electrostatic forces, and hydrogen bonds were the main driving forces for the formation and maintenance of stable FP-NaCas-CS NPs. CS coating enhanced the pH stability but reduced the ionic strength stability. The formed NPs were stable over a wide pH range from 2.0 to 8.0 and elevated salt concentrations from 0 to 3 mol L^-1 NaCl. FP-NaCas-CS NPs exhibited a higher Cur encapsulation efficiency of 93.4% and re-dispersion capability after lyophilization. Moreover, CS coating promoted selective accumulation in CD44-overexpressing HepG2 cells, resulting in higher inhibition of tumor growth compared to free Cur and FP-NaCas NP-encapsulated Cur. As for comparison, encapsulated Cur exhibited reduced cytotoxicity on normal liver cells L-O2. This preclinical study suggests that FP-NaCas-CS NPs could be very beneficial in terms of encapsulating hydrophobic drugs, improving the effectiveness of cancer therapies and reducing side effects on normal tissues.

Biogenetic nanocarriers with enhanced pH stability formed by zein and selectively depolymerized mushroom hyperbranched β-glucans

Hyperbranched polysaccharide from Pleurotus tuber-regium (PTR-HBPS) is a β-glucan with high degree of branching (DB, 0.69) and a molecular weight (Mw) of 31.2 × 10⁵ g/mol with mixed β-1, 4/β-1, 4, 6/β-1, 6 glucosidic linkages. PTR-HBPS was depolymerized by cellulase and β-glucosidase under optimized conditions to form PC (PTR-HBPS depolymerized by cellulase) and PG (PTR-HBPS depolymerized by β-glucosidase) fractions with a minimum Mw of 2.74 × 10⁵ and 3.98 × 10⁵ g/mol, respectively. PC fractions had no significant changes for its primary structure in terms of glycosidic linkages, DB, and triple helical structure, while the DB of PG fractions was reduced to 0.63 with the loss of triple helical structure. Nanoparticles fabricated by PC fractions with zein showed better stability under different pH conditions. Enzymatic depolymerized low Mw β-glucan derived from PTR-HBPS with similar structural characteristics as the native one has potential as nanocarriers for food bioactive substances.

Chitosan/zein films incorporated with essential oil nanoparticles and nanoemulsions: Similarities and differences

The purpose of this study was to prepare chitosan/zein (CS/Zein) edible films reinforced with Mosla chinensis essential oils (EOs) nanoemulsions (NEs) and nanoparticles (NPs) in order to compare their properties. NEs and NPs containing EOs could be used to fabricate films with functional properties, and the films were prepared using a casting method. The influence of EO concentration and mixing methods on the physical, mechanical, and functional properties of the films was investigated. The results indicated that the films formulated with EO NEs generated favorable fundamental and functional characteristics with excellent mechanical properties, moisture barrier capacity, and significant antioxidant and antibacterial activity. In addition, the use of NEs-based films improved the release of bioactive compounds, and the mechanism of EO release was found to follow a first order model. In summary, EO NEs were more effective in preserving the fundamental and functional properties of CS/Zein nanocomposite edible films than NP-based films. These differences may reflect different forms and methods of dispersing EOs in NEs and NPs. This study demonstrated that NEs reinforced films could be used to enhance the effectiveness of EOs in food products and develop new strategies for their delivery and application.

Review on the Regulation of Plant Polyphenols on the Stability of Polyunsaturated-Fatty-Acid-Enriched Emulsions: Partitioning Kinetic and Interfacial Engineering

The plant polyphenols are normally presented as natural functional antioxidants, which also possess the potential ability to improve the physicochemical stability of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA)-enriched emulsions by interface engineering. This review discussed the potential effects of polyphenols on the stability of PUFA-enriched emulsions from the perspective of the molecular thermodynamic antioxidative analysis, the kinetic of interfacial partitioning, and the covalent and non-covalent interactions with emulsifiers. Recently, research studies have proven that the interfacial structure of emulsions can be concurrently optimized via promoting interfacial partitioning of polyphenols and further increasing interfacial thickness and strength. Moreover, the applied limitations of polyphenols in PUFA-enriched emulsions were summarized, and then some valuable and constructive viewpoints were put forward in this review to provide guidance for the use of polyphenols in constructing PUFA-enriched emulsions.