Biorefinery of Green Biomass─How to Extract and Evaluate High Quality Leaf Protein for Food?

Duckweed protein: Extraction, modification, and potential application

Discovering alternative protein sources that are both nutritious and environmentally friendly is essential to meet the growing global population's needs. Duckweed offers promise due to its cosmopolitan distribution, rapid growth, high protein content, and scalability from household tanks to large lagoons without requiring arable land that competes for the major crops. Rich in essential amino acids, particularly branched-chain amino acids, duckweed supports human health. Extraction methods, such as ultrasound and enzymatic techniques, enhance protein yield compared to traditional methods. However, low protein solubility remains a challenge, addressed by protein modification techniques (physical, chemical, and biological) to broaden its applications. Duckweed proteins hold potential as functional food ingredients due to their unique physicochemical properties. This review also includes patents and regulations related to duckweed protein, filling a gap in current literature. Overall, duckweed presents a sustainable protein source with a lower environmental impact compared to conventional crops.

Co-production of plant- and microbial- proteins from waste tobacco leaves by optimizing alkaline extraction and strengthening pectin bioconversion

The production of alternative proteins is of great significance in the mitigation of food problems. This study proposes an integrated approach including protein extraction, enzymatic hydrolysis, and fermentation to produce both plant proteins and single-cell proteins as alternative proteins from tobacco leaves, a highly-abundant and protein-rich agricultural waste. Alkaline extraction of proteins before polysaccharide hydrolysis was found to be preferable for increasing the yields of plant proteins and mono-sugars. The combined use of pectinase-rich enzymes from Aspergillus brunneoviolaceus and hemicellulase-rich enzymes from Penicillium oxalicum achieved the release of 80.7 % of the sugars after 72 h. Cutaneotrichosporon cutaneum could simultaneously utilize multiple sugars, including galacturonic acid, in the enzymatic hydrolysate to produce single-cell proteins. Via this approach, 43.54 g crude proteins of high protein contents and rich in essential amino acids can be produced from 100.00 g waste tobacco leaves, providing a promising strategy for its valorization.

Effective collection of protein-enriched cells from green tea residue: An innovative process for leaf protein production

Green tea residue (GTR) contains a high protein content. However, the protein in GTR can't be effectively extracted using traditional methods. Thus, a novel method using ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), ammonium oxalate, or Celluclast® 1.5 L were used to disperse leaf tissues and to collect mesophyll cells to enrich the protein. Compared with EDTA or ammonium oxalate treatment, Celluclast® 1.5 L treatment achieved the highest amounts of mesophyll cells, about 2.7 × 106 g-1 of GTR. The number of collected mesophyll cells was positively and linearly correlated with the extraction rate of glucose and xylose, indicating that cellulose and hemicellulose were key components influencing cell collection. Celluclast® 1.5 L treatment enriched the protein content by 1.65 times in collected mesophyll cells to 50% protein content with a protein recovery of 88%, providing a novel scheme to obtain high-quality leaf protein for the food industry.

Cassava leaves as an alternative protein source: Effect of alkaline parameters and precipitation conditions on protein extraction and recovery

Alternative protein sources have been required to meet the significant plant protein demand. Agro-industrial by-products such as leaves have considerable potential as a source of macromolecules once they are mostly discarded as waste. The current study evaluated dried cassava leaves as a protein source. First, alkaline extraction parameters (solid-liquid ratio, pH, and temperature) were optimized and the run that result in the highest protein yield were acidified at pH 2.5 or 4. The influence of carbohydrate solubilized on protein precipitation was also evaluated by removing it via alcoholic extraction prior to precipitation. The experimental design showed that high pH and temperature conditions associated with a low solid-liquid ratio led to increased protein yields. The presence of carbohydrates in the supernatant significantly influenced protein precipitation. The protein concentrate had around 17.51% protein when it was obtained from a supernatant with carbohydrates, while protein content increased to 26.88% when it was obtained from carbohydrate-free supernatant. The precipitation pH also influenced protein content, whereas protein content significantly decreased when pH increased from 2.5 to 4. The natural interaction between carbohydrates and proteins from cassava leaves positively influenced the emulsion stability index and the foaming capacity and stability. Thus, the presented results bring insights into challenges in extracting and precipitation proteins from agro-industrial by-products.

In vitro protein digestibility of RuBisCO-enriched wheat dough: a comparative study with pea and gluten proteins

Growing demand for sustainable, plant-based protein sources has stimulated interest in new ingredients for food enrichment. This study investigates the nutritional and digestive implications of enriching wheat dough with RuBisCO, in comparison to pea protein-enriched and gluten-enriched doughs. The protein quality and digestibility of these enriched doughs were analysed through dough characterization, in vitro digestion experiments and biochemical analysis of digesta. Our findings indicate that an enrichment at 10% of RuBisCO or pea proteins improves the chemical score and the in vitro PDCAAS (IV-PDCAAS) score of wheat dough as compared to the control dough. Digestibility assays suggest that RuBisCO introduction modifies the protein hydrolysis kinetics: the nitrogen release is lower during gastric digestion but larger during intestinal digestion than other samples. The analysis of the protein composition of the soluble and insoluble parts of digesta, using size-exclusion chromatography, reveals that the protein network in RuBisCO-enriched dough is more resistant to gastric hydrolysis than the ones of other doughs. Indeed, non-covalently bound peptides and disulfide-bound protein aggregates partly composed of RuBisCO subunits remain insoluble at the end of the gastric phase. The digestion of these protein structures is then mostly performed during the intestinal phase. These results are also discussed in relation to the digestive enzymatic cleavage sites, the presence of potential enzyme inhibitors, the protein aggregation state and the secondary structures of the protein network in each dough type.

The composition and nutritional quality of biorefined lucerne protein depend on precipitation method

BACKGROUND

Lucerne protein extract is a novel high-quality protein source with excellent amino acid (AA) composition of interest for human consumption. In this study, protein from screw-pressed lucerne juice was extracted by different precipitation methods to evaluate the effect on the chemical composition and nutritional quality of the extracted protein. Methods based on heat, acidification or fermentation were used for protein precipitation, and the nutritional value of protein was evaluated in a rat digestibility trial.

RESULTS

Heat precipitation at 85 °C produced a protein product with a crude protein (CP) content of 589 g kg-1 dry matter (DM), a balanced AA composition and a high standardized nitrogen (N) digestibility (82.8%). Precipitation by acidification, at a lower temperature (60 °C) or by fermentation, resulted in lower CP content (425-488 g kg-1 DM). Nitrogen digestibility for the pH-adjusted precipitate was equal to the 85 °C heat-precipitated protein, while the fermented and 60 °C precipitated proteins showed lower N digestibility (76.5% and 78.6%, respectively). By applying a two-step heat precipitation method (60 °C followed by 80 °C), a protein content of 712 g kg-1 DM and an N digestibility of 93.6% was reached, which are comparable to high-quality animal-based protein sources such as milk, whey, casein, and eggs, covering the AA requirements for children >6 months.

CONCLUSION

High-quality protein can be extracted from lucerne, but the future focus should be on increased yield as the current low yields of the refined product will challenge the environmental and economic sustainability of production. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Novel uses of ensiled biomasses as feedstocks for green biorefineries

Perennial forage plants are efficient utilizers of solar radiation and nutrients so that there is a lot of scope to increase the production of green biomass in many areas. Currently, grasses are mainly used as feeds for ruminants and equines, but there could be higher added value use for several components of the green biomass. Interest in green biorefining has risen recently motivated by the increased sustainability pressures and need to break the reliance on fossil fuels. Novel products derived from grass, such as paper and packaging, nanofibers, animal bedding, novel protein feeds, extracted proteins, biochemicals, nutraceuticals, bioactive compounds, biogas and biochar could create new sustainable business opportunities in rural areas. Most green biorefinery concepts focus on using fresh green biomass as the feedstock, but preservation of it by ensiling would provide several benefits such as all-year-around availability of the feedstock and increased stability of the press juice and press cake. The major difference between fresh and ensiled grass is the conversion of water soluble carbohydrates into fermentation end products, mainly lactic and acetic acids, that lower the pH of the silage so that it becomes stable in anaerobic conditions. This has some important consequences on the processability and quality of products, which are partly positive and partly negative, e.g., degradation of protein into peptides, amino acids and ammonia. These aspects are discussed in this review.

Plant-based proteins from agro-industrial waste and by-products: Towards a more circular economy

There is a pressing need for affordable, abundant, and sustainable sources of proteins to address the rising nutrient demands of a growing global population. The food and agriculture sectors produce significant quantities of waste and by-products during the growing, harvesting, storing, transporting, and processing of raw materials. These waste and by-products can sometimes be converted into valuable protein-rich ingredients with excellent functional and nutritional attributes, thereby contributing to a more circular economy. This review critically assesses the potential for agro-industrial wastes and by-products to contribute to global protein requirements. Initially, we discuss the origins and molecular characteristics of plant proteins derived from agro-industrial waste and by-products. We then discuss the techno-functional attributes, extraction methods, and modification techniques that are applied to these plant proteins. Finally, challenges linked to the safety, allergenicity, anti-nutritional factors, digestibility, and sensory attributes of plant proteins derived from these sources are highlighted. The utilization of agro-industrial by-products and wastes as an economical, abundant, and sustainable protein source could contribute towards achieving the Sustainable Development Agenda's 2030 goal of a "zero hunger world", as well as mitigating fluctuations in food availability and prices, which have detrimental impacts on global food security and nutrition.

In vitro protein digestibility of RuBisCO from alfalfa obtained from different processing histories: Insights from free N-terminal and mass spectrometry study

Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate-carboxylase/oxygenase (RuBisCO) from alfalfa is a potentially climate-friendly alternative protein with a promising amino acid composition. The balance between yield and purity is a challenge for alternative plant proteins, partly due to the naturally occurring antinutrients. Therefore, measuring the in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) of RuBisCO with various purity levels is of interest. It was hypothesized that the digestibility of RuBisCO from alfalfa might vary with different processing histories and levels of refinement. To test this hypothesis, RuBisCO from alfalfa with 4 different processing histories were subjected to the INFOGEST IVPD protocol and measurement of free N-terminals and peptidomics. The result showed that the digestibility of RuBisCO was high regardless of the processing history and purity, as demonstrated by 77-99% sequence coverage in the gastric phase. In intestinal phase, increase of free N-terminals and lower sequence coverage (< 10%) indicated that the proteins were hydrolyzed to smaller peptides.

Nitrogen and phosphorus addition promote invasion success of invasive species via increased growth and nutrient accumulation under elevated CO2

In the context of the resource allocation hypothesis regarding the trade-off between growth and defence, compared with native species, invasive species generally allocate more energy to growth and less energy to defence. However, it remains unclear how global change and nutrient enrichment will influence the competition between invasive species and co-occurring native species. Here, we tested whether nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) addition under elevated CO2 causes invasive species (Mikania micrantha and Chromolaena odorata) to produce greater biomass, higher growth-related compounds and lower defence-related compounds than native plants (Paederia scandens and Eupatorium chinense). We grew these native and invasive species with similar morphology with the addition of N and P under elevated CO2 in open-top chambers. The addition of N alone increased the relative growth rate (RGR) by 5.4% in invasive species, and its combination with P addition or elevated CO2 significantly increased the RGR of invasive species by 7.5 or 8.1%, respectively, and to a level higher than that of native species (by 14.4%, P < 0.01). Combined N + P addition under elevated CO2 decreased the amount of defence-related compounds in the leaf, including lipids (by 17.7%) and total structural carbohydrates (by 29.0%), whereas it increased the growth-related compounds in the leaf, including proteins (by 75.7%), minerals (by 9.6%) and total non-structural carbohydrates (by 8.5%). The increased concentrations of growth-related compounds were possibly associated with the increase in ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase content and mineral nutrition (magnesium, iron and calcium), all of which were higher in the invasive species than in the native species. These results suggest that rising atmospheric CO2 concentration and N deposition combined with nutrient enrichment will increase the growth of invasive species more than that of native species. Our result also suggests that invasive species respond more readily to produce growth-related compounds under an increased soil nutrient availability and elevated CO2.

Optimization of Water Lentil (Duckweed) Leaf Protein Purification: Identification, Structure, and Foaming Properties

Water lentil, commonly known as duckweed, is an aquatic plant with great agronomic potential, as it can double its biomass in less than 24 h and contains up to 45% leaf proteins on a dry matter basis. However, extracting proteins from leaves is an arduous process due to the complexity of the matrix, which limits their uses in the food industry. In this study, water lentil protein extraction by solubilization was maximized using response surface methodology. By heating at 80 °C at pH 11 with a water lentil powder concentration of 2% or 4% for 2 h, up to 77.8% of total proteins were solubilized. Then, by precipitating the solubilized proteins at pH 4, a protein purity of 57.6% combined with a total protein yield of 60.0% was achieved. To the best of our knowledge, this is the highest leaf protein extraction yield reported in the literature with such protein purity. Proteomics analyses showed that the protein concentrate was composed of around 85.0% RubisCO, and protein structure analyses using ATR-FTIR and DSC were linked to a high protein solubility in water at pH 7. Moreover, a 1.5% protein solution of the protein concentrate at pH 7 showed excellent foaming properties compared to a 10.3% protein egg white solution. It had a superior foaming capacity (194% vs. 122%, respectively) for the same foaming stability after 60 min, which confirms water lentil proteins' potential for human nutrition and food formulation.

Green Biorefinery systems for the production of climate-smart sustainable products from grasses, legumes and green crop residues

Grasses, legumes and green plant wastes represent a ubiquitous feedstock for developing a bioeconomy in regions across Europe. These feedstocks are often an important source of ruminant feed, although much remains unused or underutilised. In addition to proteins, these materials are rich in fibres, sugars, minerals and other components that could also be used as inputs for bio-based product development. Green Biorefinery processes and initiatives are being developed to better capitalise on the potential of these feedstocks to produce sustainable food, feed, materials and energy in an integrated way. Such systems may support a more sustainable primary production sector, enable the valorisation of green waste streams, and provide new business models for farmers. This review presents the current developments in Green Biorefining, focusing on a broad feedstock and product base to include different models of Green Biorefinery. It demonstrates the potential and wide applicability of Green Biorefinery systems, the range of bio-based product opportunities and highlights the way forward for their broader implementation. While the potential for new products is extensive, quality control approval will be required prior to market entry.

Is now the time for a Rubiscuit or Ruburger? Increased interest in Rubisco as a food protein

Much of the research on Rubisco aims at increasing crop yields, with the ultimate aim of increasing plant production to feed an increasing global population. However, since the identification of Rubisco as the most abundant protein in leaf material, it has also been touted as a direct source of dietary protein. The nutritional and functional properties of Rubisco are on a par with those of many animal proteins, and are superior to those of many other plant proteins. Purified Rubisco isolates are easily digestible, nutritionally complete, and have excellent foaming, gelling, and emulsifying properties. Despite this potential, challenges in efficiently extracting and separating Rubisco have limited its use as a global foodstuff. Leaves are lower in protein than seeds, requiring large amounts of biomass to be processed. This material normally needs to be processed quickly to avoid degradation of the final product. Extraction of Rubisco from the plant material requires breaking down the cell walls and rupturing the chloroplast. In order to obtain high-quality protein, Rubisco needs to be separated from chlorophyll, and then concentrated for final use. However, with increased consumer demand for plant protein, there is increased interest in the potential of leaf protein, and many commercial plants are now being established aimed at producing Rubisco as a food protein, with over US$60 million of funding invested in the past 5 years. Is now the time for increased use of Rubisco in food production as a nitrogen source, rather than just providing a carbon source?

Plant leaf proteins for food applications: Opportunities and challenges

Plant-based proteins are gaining a lot of attention for their health benefits and are considered as an alternative to animal proteins for developing sustainable food systems. Against the backdrop, ensuring a healthy diet supplemented with good quality protein will be a massive responsibility of governments across the globe. Increasing the yield of food crops has its limitations, including low acceptance of genetically modified crops, land availability for cultivation, and the need for large quantities of agrochemicals. It necessitates the sensible use of existing resources and farm output to derive the proteins. On average, the protein content of plant leaves is similar to that of milk, which can be efficiently tapped for food applications across the globe. There has been limited research on utilizing plant leaf proteins for food product development over the years, which has not been fruitful. However, the current global food production scenario has pushed some leading economies to reconsider the scope of plant leaf proteins with dedicated efforts. It is evident from installing pilot-scale demonstration plants for protein extraction from agro-food residues to cater to the protein demand with product formulation. The present study thoroughly reviews the opportunities and challenges linked to the production of plant leaf proteins, including its nutritional aspects, extraction and purification strategies, anti-nutritional factors, functional and sensory properties in food product development, and finally, its impact on the environment. Practical Application: Plant leaf proteins are one of the sustainable and alternative source of proteins. It can be produced in most of the agroclimatic conditions without requiring much agricultural inputs. It's functional properties are unique and finds application in novel food product formulations.

Formulation and characterization of plant-based egg white analogs using RuBisCO protein

RuBisCO protein, which can be isolated from abundant and sustainable plant sources, can mimic some of the desirable functional attributes of egg white proteins. In this study, plant-based egg white analogs were successfully produced using 10 w% RuBisCO solutions (pH 8). These protein solutions had similar apparent viscosity-shear rate profiles, shear modulus-temperature profiles, gelling temperatures, and final gel strengths as egg white. However, there were some differences. RuBisCO protein gels were slightly darker than egg white, which was attributed to the presence of phenolic impurities. Moreover, RuBisCo proteins exhibited a single thermal transition temperature (∼66 °C) whereas egg white proteins exhibited two (∼66 and ∼81 °C). RuBisCO gels were more brittle but less chewy and resilient than egg white gels. This study provides valuable insights into the potential of RuBisCO protein for formulating plant-based egg white analogs.

Multi-Functional Development and Utilization of Rapeseed: Comprehensive Analysis of the Nutritional Value of Rapeseed Sprouts

Rapeseed is the third largest oil crop in the world and the largest oil crop in China. The multi-functional development and utilization of rapeseed is an effective measure for the high-quality development of rapeseed industry in China. In this study, several basic nutrients of eight rapeseed sprouts and five bean sprouts (3–5 varieties each) were determined, including sugar, crude protein, crude fiber, vitamin E, minerals, fatty acids, amino acids, and glucosinolates. Data analysis revealed that compared with bean sprouts, rapeseed sprouts were nutritionally balanced and were richer in active nutrients such as glucose, magnesium, selenium, vitamin E, and glucosinolate. Moreover, rapeseed sprouts exhibited reasonable amino acid composition and abundant unsaturated fatty acids (accounting for 90.32% of the total fatty acids). All these results indicated the potential of rapeseed sprout as a functional vegetable. Subsequently, three dominant nutrients including vitamin E, glucosinolate, and selenium were investigated in seeds and sprouts of 44 B. napus L. varieties. The results showed that germination raised the ratio of α-tocopherol/γ-tocopherol from 0.53 in seeds to 9.65 in sprouts, greatly increasing the content of α-tocopherol with the strongest antioxidant activity among the eight isomers of vitamin E. Furthermore, germination promoted the conversion and accumulation of glucosinolate components, especially, glucoraphanin with strong anti-cancer activity with its proportion increased from 1.06% in seeds to 1.62% in sprouts. In addition, the contents of selenium, vitamin E, and glucosinolate in rapeseed sprouts were highly correlated with those in seeds. Furthermore, these three dominant nutrients varied greatly within B. napus varieties, indicating the great potential of rapeseed sprouts to be further bio-enhanced. Our findings provide reference for the multi-purpose development and utilization of rapeseed, lay a theoretical foundation for the development of rapeseed sprout into a functional vegetable, and provide a novel breeding direction.