1
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Curchod BFE, Orr-Ewing AJ. Perspective on Theoretical and Experimental Advances in Atmospheric Photochemistry. J Phys Chem A 2024; 128:6613-6635. [PMID: 39021090 PMCID: PMC11331530 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.4c03481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2024] [Revised: 07/02/2024] [Accepted: 07/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Research that explores the chemistry of Earth's atmosphere is central to the current understanding of global challenges such as climate change, stratospheric ozone depletion, and poor air quality in urban areas. This research is a synergistic combination of three established domains: earth observation, for example, using satellites, and in situ field measurements; computer modeling of the atmosphere and its chemistry; and laboratory measurements of the properties and reactivity of gas-phase molecules and aerosol particles. The complexity of the interconnected chemical and photochemical reactions which determine the composition of the atmosphere challenges the capacity of laboratory studies to provide the spectroscopic, photochemical, and kinetic data required for computer models. Here, we consider whether predictions from computational chemistry using modern electronic structure theory and nonadiabatic dynamics simulations are becoming sufficiently accurate to supplement quantitative laboratory data for wavelength-dependent absorption cross-sections, photochemical quantum yields, and reaction rate coefficients. Drawing on presentations and discussions from the CECAM workshop on Theoretical and Experimental Advances in Atmospheric Photochemistry held in March 2024, we describe key concepts in the theory of photochemistry, survey the state-of-the-art in computational photochemistry methods, and compare their capabilities with modern experimental laboratory techniques. From such considerations, we offer a perspective on the scope of computational (photo)chemistry methods based on rigorous electronic structure theory to become a fourth core domain of research in atmospheric chemistry.
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2
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Gelin MF, Borrelli R. Thermo-Field Dynamics Approach to Photo-induced Electronic Transitions Driven by Incoherent Thermal Radiation. J Chem Theory Comput 2023; 19:6402-6413. [PMID: 37656914 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.3c00590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
The effects of thermal light-matter interaction on the dynamics of photo-induced electronic transitions in molecules are investigated using a novel first principles approach based on the thermo-field dynamics description of both the molecular vibrational modes and of the radiation field. The developed approach permits numerically accurate simulations of quantum dynamics of electronic/excitonic systems coupled to nuclear and photonic baths kept at different temperatures. The baths can be described by arbitrary spectral densities and can have any system-bath coupling strengths. In agreement with the results obtained previously by less rigorous methods, we show that the excitation process obtained by the continuous interaction with the suddenly turned-on thermal radiation field creates a mixed ensemble having a nonnegligible component consisting of a superposition of vibronic eigenstates which can sustain coherent oscillations for relatively long times. The results become especially relevant for the dynamics of electronic transitions upon sunlight excitation. Analytical results based on time-dependent perturbation theory support the numerical simulations and provide a simple interpretation of the time evolution of quantum observables.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxim F Gelin
- School of Sciences, Hangzhou Dianzi University, Hangzhou 310018, China
| | - Raffaele Borrelli
- DISAFA, University of Torino, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco I-10095, Italy
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3
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Prlj A, Hollas D, Curchod BFE. Deciphering the Influence of Ground-State Distributions on the Calculation of Photolysis Observables. J Phys Chem A 2023; 127:7400-7409. [PMID: 37556330 PMCID: PMC10493954 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.3c02333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2023] [Revised: 07/17/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
Nonadiabatic molecular dynamics offers a powerful tool for studying the photochemistry of molecular systems. Key to any nonadiabatic molecular dynamics simulation is the definition of its initial conditions (ICs), ideally representing the initial molecular quantum state of the system of interest. In this work, we provide a detailed analysis of how ICs may influence the calculation of experimental observables by focusing on the photochemistry of methylhydroperoxide (MHP), the simplest and most abundant organic peroxide in our atmosphere. We investigate the outcome of trajectory surface hopping simulations for distinct sets of ICs sampled from different approximate quantum distributions, namely harmonic Wigner functions and ab initio molecular dynamics using a quantum thermostat (QT). Calculating photoabsorption cross-sections, quantum yields, and translational kinetic energy maps from the results of these simulations reveals the significant effect of the ICs, in particular when low-frequency (∼ a few hundred cm-1) normal modes are connected to the photophysics of the molecule. Overall, our results indicate that sampling ICs from ab initio molecular dynamics using a QT is preferable for flexible molecules with photoactive low-frequency modes. From a photochemical perspective, our nonadiabatic dynamics simulations offer an explanation for a low-energy tail observed at high excitation energy in the translational kinetic energy map of MHP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Prlj
- Centre
for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K.
- Division
of Physical Chemistry, Ruđer Bošković
Institute, Zagreb 10000, Croatia
| | - Daniel Hollas
- Centre
for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K.
| | - Basile F. E. Curchod
- Centre
for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K.
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4
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Barbatti M, Bondanza M, Crespo-Otero R, Demoulin B, Dral PO, Granucci G, Kossoski F, Lischka H, Mennucci B, Mukherjee S, Pederzoli M, Persico M, Pinheiro Jr M, Pittner J, Plasser F, Sangiogo Gil E, Stojanovic L. Newton-X Platform: New Software Developments for Surface Hopping and Nuclear Ensembles. J Chem Theory Comput 2022; 18:6851-6865. [PMID: 36194696 PMCID: PMC9648185 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.2c00804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Newton-X is an open-source computational platform to perform nonadiabatic molecular dynamics based on surface hopping and spectrum simulations using the nuclear ensemble approach. Both are among the most common methodologies in computational chemistry for photophysical and photochemical investigations. This paper describes the main features of these methods and how they are implemented in Newton-X. It emphasizes the newest developments, including zero-point-energy leakage correction, dynamics on complex-valued potential energy surfaces, dynamics induced by incoherent light, dynamics based on machine-learning potentials, exciton dynamics of multiple chromophores, and supervised and unsupervised machine learning techniques. Newton-X is interfaced with several third-party quantum-chemistry programs, spanning a broad spectrum of electronic structure methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Barbatti
- Aix
Marseille University, CNRS, ICR, 13013Marseille, France
- Institut
Universitaire de France, 75231Paris, France
| | - Mattia Bondanza
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università
di Pisa, via Moruzzi
13, 56124Pisa, Italy
| | - Rachel Crespo-Otero
- Department
of Chemistry, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End Road, E1 4NSLondon, U.K.
| | | | - Pavlo O. Dral
- State
Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, Fujian Provincial
Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry, Department
of Chemistry, and College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Xiamen University, 361005Xiamen, China
| | - Giovanni Granucci
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università
di Pisa, via Moruzzi
13, 56124Pisa, Italy
| | - Fábris Kossoski
- Laboratoire
de Chimie et Physique Quantiques (UMR 5626), Université de Toulouse, CNRS, UPS, 31000Toulouse, France
| | - Hans Lischka
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech
University, Lubbock, Texas79409, United States
| | - Benedetta Mennucci
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università
di Pisa, via Moruzzi
13, 56124Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Marek Pederzoli
- J.
Heyrovsky Institute of Physical Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i., Dolejškova 3, 18223Prague 8, Czech Republic
| | - Maurizio Persico
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università
di Pisa, via Moruzzi
13, 56124Pisa, Italy
| | | | - Jiří Pittner
- J.
Heyrovsky Institute of Physical Chemistry, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, v.v.i., Dolejškova 3, 18223Prague 8, Czech Republic
| | - Felix Plasser
- Department
of Chemistry, Loughborough University, LE11 3TULoughborough, U.K.
| | - Eduarda Sangiogo Gil
- Dipartimento
di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università
di Pisa, via Moruzzi
13, 56124Pisa, Italy
| | - Ljiljana Stojanovic
- Department
of Physics and Astronomy, University College
London, Gower Street, WC1E 6BTLondon, U.K.
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5
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Hutton L, Curchod BFE. Photodynamics of Gas‐Phase Pyruvic Acid Following Light Absorption in the Actinic Region. CHEMPHOTOCHEM 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/cptc.202200151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lewis Hutton
- Centre for Computational Chemistry School of Chemistry University of Bristol Bristol BS8 1TS UK
| | - Basile F. E. Curchod
- Centre for Computational Chemistry School of Chemistry University of Bristol Bristol BS8 1TS UK
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6
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Marsili E, Prlj A, Curchod BFE. A Theoretical Perspective on the Actinic Photochemistry of 2-Hydroperoxypropanal. J Phys Chem A 2022; 126:5420-5433. [PMID: 35900368 PMCID: PMC9393889 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.2c03783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
![]()
The photochemical reactions triggered by the sunlight
absorption
of transient volatile organic compounds in the troposphere are notoriously
difficult to characterize experimentally due to the unstable and short-lived
nature of these organic molecules. Some members of this family of
compounds are likely to exhibit a rich photochemistry given the diversity
of functional groups they can bear. Even more interesting is the photochemical
fate of volatile organic compounds bearing more than one functional
group that can absorb light—this is the case, for example,
of α-hydroperoxycarbonyls, which are formed during the oxidation
of isoprene. Experimental observables characterizing the photochemistry
of these molecules like photoabsorption cross-sections or photolysis
quantum yields are currently missing, and we propose here to leverage
a recently developed computational protocol to predict in silico the
photochemical fate of 2-hydroperoxypropanal (2-HPP) in the actinic
region. We combine different levels of electronic structure methods—SCS-ADC(2)
and XMS-CASPT2—with the nuclear ensemble approach and trajectory
surface hopping to understand the mechanistic details of the possible
nonradiative processes of 2-HPP. In particular, we predict the photoabsorption
cross-section and the wavelength-dependent quantum yields for the
observed photolytic pathways and combine them to determine in silico
photolysis rate constants. The limitations of our protocol and possible
future improvements are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Marsili
- Centre for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K
| | - Antonio Prlj
- Centre for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K
| | - Basile F E Curchod
- Centre for Computational Chemistry, School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K
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7
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Mukherjee S, Pinheiro M, Demoulin B, Barbatti M. Simulations of molecular photodynamics in long timescales. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2022; 380:20200382. [PMID: 35341303 PMCID: PMC8958277 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2020.0382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Nonadiabatic dynamics simulations in the long timescale (much longer than 10 ps) are the next challenge in computational photochemistry. This paper delimits the scope of what we expect from methods to run such simulations: they should work in full nuclear dimensionality, be general enough to tackle any type of molecule and not require unrealistic computational resources. We examine the main methodological challenges we should venture to advance the field, including the computational costs of the electronic structure calculations, stability of the integration methods, accuracy of the nonadiabatic dynamics algorithms and software optimization. Based on simulations designed to shed light on each of these issues, we show how machine learning may be a crucial element for long time-scale dynamics, either as a surrogate for electronic structure calculations or aiding the parameterization of model Hamiltonians. We show that conventional methods for integrating classical equations should be adequate to extended simulations up to 1 ns and that surface hopping agrees semiquantitatively with wave packet propagation in the weak-coupling regime. We also describe our optimization of the Newton-X program to reduce computational overheads in data processing and storage. This article is part of the theme issue 'Chemistry without the Born-Oppenheimer approximation'.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Max Pinheiro
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, ICR, Marseille, France
| | | | - Mario Barbatti
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, ICR, Marseille, France
- Institut Universitaire de France, 75231 Paris, France
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8
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Zhang J, Peng J, Hu D, Lan Z. Investigation of nonadiabatic dynamics in the photolysis of methyl nitrate (CH 3ONO 2) by on-the-fly surface hopping simulation. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2021; 23:25597-25611. [PMID: 34546246 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp03226g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The photolysis mechanism of methyl nitrate (CH3ONO2) was studied using the on-the-fly surface hopping dynamics at the XMS-CASPT2 level. Several critical geometries, including electronic state minima and conical intersections, were obtained, which play essential roles in the nonadiabatic dynamics of CH3ONO2. The ultrafast nonadiabatic decay dynamics to the ground state were simulated, which gives a proper explanation on the broad and structureless absorption spectra of CH3ONO2. The photodissociation channels, including CH3O + NO2, CH3O + NO + O, and others, as well as their branching ratios, were identified. When the dynamics starts from the lowest two electronic states (S1 and S2), the CH3O + NO2 channel is the dominant photolysis pathway, although we observed the minor contributions of other channels. In contrast, when the trajectories start from the third excited state S3, both CH3O + NO2 and CH3O + NO + O channels become important. Here the CH3O-NO2 bond dissociation takes place first, and then for some trajectories, the N-O bond of the NO2 part breaks successively. The quasi-degeneracy of electronic states may exist in the dissociation limits of both CH3O + NO2 and CH3O + NO + O channels. The current work provides valuable information in the understanding of experimental findings of the wavelength-dependent photolysis mechanism of CH3ONO2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juanjuan Zhang
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Theoretical Chemistry, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China. .,School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jiawei Peng
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Theoretical Chemistry, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China. .,School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Deping Hu
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Theoretical Chemistry, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China. .,School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Zhenggang Lan
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Theoretical Chemistry, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China. .,School of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China
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9
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Zobel JP, González L. The Quest to Simulate Excited-State Dynamics of Transition Metal Complexes. JACS AU 2021; 1:1116-1140. [PMID: 34467353 PMCID: PMC8397362 DOI: 10.1021/jacsau.1c00252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
This Perspective describes current computational efforts in the field of simulating photodynamics of transition metal complexes. We present the typical workflows and feature the strengths and limitations of the different contemporary approaches. From electronic structure methods suitable to describe transition metal complexes to approaches able to simulate their nuclear dynamics under the effect of light, we give particular attention to build a bridge between theory and experiment by critically discussing the different models commonly adopted in the interpretation of spectroscopic experiments and the simulation of particular observables. Thereby, we review all the studies of excited-state dynamics on transition metal complexes, both in gas phase and in solution from reduced to full dimensionality.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. Patrick Zobel
- Institute
of Theoretical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 19, 1090 Vienna Austria
| | - Leticia González
- Institute
of Theoretical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 19, 1090 Vienna Austria
- Vienna
Research Platform on Accelerating Photoreaction Discovery, University of Vienna, Währingerstr. 19, 1090 Vienna Austria
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10
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Shchepanovska D, Shannon RJ, Curchod BFE, Glowacki DR. Nonadiabatic Kinetics in the Intermediate Coupling Regime: Comparing Molecular Dynamics to an Energy-Grained Master Equation. J Phys Chem A 2021; 125:3473-3488. [PMID: 33880919 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.1c01260] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We propose and test an extension of the energy-grained master equation (EGME) for treating nonadiabatic (NA) hopping between different potential energy surfaces, which enables us to model the competition between stepwise collisional relaxation and kinetic processes which transfer population between different electronic states of the same spin symmetry. By incorporating Zhu-Nakamura theory into the EGME, we are able to treat NA passages beyond the simple Landau-Zener approximation, along with the corresponding treatments of zero-point energy and tunneling probability. To evaluate the performance of this NA-EGME approach, we carried out detailed studies of the UV photodynamics of the volatile organic compound C6-hydroperoxy aldehyde (C6-HPALD) using on-the-fly ab initio molecular dynamics and trajectory surface hopping. For this multichromophore molecule, we show that the EGME is able to capture important aspects of the dynamics, including kinetic timescales, and diabatic trapping. Such an approach provides a promising and efficient strategy for treating the long-time dynamics of photoexcited molecules in regimes which are difficult to capture using atomistic on-the-fly molecular dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Robin J Shannon
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K
| | | | - David R Glowacki
- School of Chemistry, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TS, U.K.,Intangible Realities Laboratory, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, U.K.,Department of Computer Science, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1UB, U.K
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11
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Loaiza I, Izmaylov AF, Brumer P. Computational approaches to efficient generation of the stationary state for incoherent light excitation. J Chem Phys 2021; 154:124126. [PMID: 33810687 DOI: 10.1063/5.0036622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Light harvesting processes are often computationally studied from a time-dependent viewpoint, in line with ultrafast coherent spectroscopy experiments. Yet, natural processes take place in the presence of incoherent light, which induces a stationary state. Such stationary states can be described using the eigenbasis of the molecular Hamiltonian, but for realistic systems, a full diagonalization is prohibitively expensive. We propose three efficient computational approaches to obtain the stationary state that circumvents system Hamiltonian diagonalization. The connection between the incoherent perturbations, decoherence, and Kraus operators is established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignacio Loaiza
- Chemical Physics Theory Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Artur F Izmaylov
- Chemical Physics Theory Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
| | - Paul Brumer
- Chemical Physics Theory Group, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3H6, Canada
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12
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Marsili E, Olivucci M, Lauvergnat D, Agostini F. Quantum and Quantum-Classical Studies of the Photoisomerization of a Retinal Chromophore Model. J Chem Theory Comput 2020; 16:6032-6048. [PMID: 32931266 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jctc.0c00679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
We report an in-depth analysis of the photo-induced isomerization of the 2-cis-penta-2,4-dieniminium cation: a minimal model of the 11-cis retinal protonated Schiff base chromophore of the dim-light photoreceptor rhodopsin. Based on recently developed three-dimensional potentials parametrized on ab initio multi-state multi-configurational second-order perturbation theory data, we perform quantum-dynamical studies. In addition, simulations based on various quantum-classical methods, among which Tully surface hopping and the coupled-trajectory approach derived from the exact factorization, allow us to validate their performance against vibronic wavepacket propagation and, therefore, a purely quantum treatment. Quantum-dynamics results uncover qualitative differences with respect to the two-dimensional Hahn-Stock potentials, widely used as model potentials for the isomerization of the same chromophore, due to the increased dimensionality and three-mode correlation. Quantum-classical simulations show, instead, that three-dimensional model potentials are capable of capturing a number of features revealed by atomistic simulations and experimental observations. In particular, a recently reported vibrational phase relationship between double-bond torsion and hydrogen-out-of-plane modes critical for rhodopsin isomerization efficiency is correctly reproduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Marsili
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Physique UMR8000, Orsay 91405, France.,Department of Chemistry, Durham University, South Road, Durham DH1 3LE, United Kingdom
| | - Massimo Olivucci
- Department of Biotechnology, Chemistry and Pharmacy, Università degli Studi di Siena, Via A. Moro 2, I-53100 Siena, Italy.,Department of Chemistry, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio 43403, United States
| | - David Lauvergnat
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Physique UMR8000, Orsay 91405, France
| | - Federica Agostini
- Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut de Chimie Physique UMR8000, Orsay 91405, France
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