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Shankar G, Akhter Y. Stealing survival: Iron acquisition strategies of Mycobacteriumtuberculosis. Biochimie 2024:S0300-9084(24)00142-1. [PMID: 38901792 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2024.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 06/22/2024]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), the causative agent of tuberculosis (TB), faces iron scarcity within the host due to immune defenses. This review explores the importance of iron for Mtb and its strategies to overcome iron restriction. We discuss how the host limits iron as an innate immune response and how Mtb utilizes various iron acquisition systems, particularly the siderophore-mediated pathway. The review illustrates the structure and biosynthesis of mycobactin, a key siderophore in Mtb, and the regulation of its production. We explore the potential of targeting siderophore biosynthesis and uptake as a novel therapeutic approach for TB. Finally, we summarize current knowledge on Mtb's iron acquisition and highlight promising directions for future research to exploit this pathway for developing new TB interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gauri Shankar
- Department of Biotechnology, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Vidya Vihar, Raebareli Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226 025, India
| | - Yusuf Akhter
- Department of Biotechnology, Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Vidya Vihar, Raebareli Road, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, 226 025, India.
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2
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Mori M, Cocorullo M, Tresoldi A, Cazzaniga G, Gelain A, Stelitano G, Chiarelli LR, Tomaiuolo M, Delre P, Mangiatordi GF, Garofalo M, Cassetta A, Covaceuszach S, Villa S, Meneghetti F. Structural basis for specific inhibition of salicylate synthase from Mycobacterium abscessus. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 265:116073. [PMID: 38169270 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.116073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
Blocking iron uptake and metabolism has been emerging as a promising therapeutic strategy for the development of novel antimicrobial compounds. Like all mycobacteria, M. abscessus (Mab) has evolved several countermeasures to scavenge iron from host carrier proteins, including the production of siderophores, which play a crucial role in these processes. In this study, we solved, for the first time, the crystal structure of Mab-SaS, the first enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of siderophores. Moreover, we screened a small, focused library and identified a compound exhibiting a potent inhibitory effect against Mab-SaS (IC50 ≈ 2 μM). Its binding mode was investigated by means of Induced Fit Docking simulations, performed on the crystal structure presented herein. Furthermore, cytotoxicity data and pharmacokinetic predictions revealed the safety and drug-likeness of this class of compounds. Finally, the crystallographic data were used to optimize the model for future virtual screening campaigns. Taken together, the findings of our study pave the way for the identification of potent Mab-SaS inhibitors, based on both established and unexplored chemotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Mori
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Mario Cocorullo
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Lazzaro Spallanzani", University of Pavia, Via A. Ferrata 9, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Andrea Tresoldi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Giulia Cazzaniga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Arianna Gelain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Giovanni Stelitano
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Lazzaro Spallanzani", University of Pavia, Via A. Ferrata 9, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Laurent R Chiarelli
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Lazzaro Spallanzani", University of Pavia, Via A. Ferrata 9, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Martina Tomaiuolo
- Institute of Crystallography, National Research Council, Trieste Outstation, Area Science Park - Basovizza, S.S.14 - Km. 163.5, 34149, Trieste, Italy
| | - Pietro Delre
- Institute of Crystallography, National Research Council, Via G. Amendola 122/o, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Giuseppe F Mangiatordi
- Institute of Crystallography, National Research Council, Via G. Amendola 122/o, 70126, Bari, Italy
| | - Mariangela Garofalo
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, via F. Marzolo 5, 35131, Padova, Italy
| | - Alberto Cassetta
- Institute of Crystallography, National Research Council, Trieste Outstation, Area Science Park - Basovizza, S.S.14 - Km. 163.5, 34149, Trieste, Italy
| | - Sonia Covaceuszach
- Institute of Crystallography, National Research Council, Trieste Outstation, Area Science Park - Basovizza, S.S.14 - Km. 163.5, 34149, Trieste, Italy.
| | - Stefania Villa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy.
| | - Fiorella Meneghetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy
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Mori M, Villa S, Chiarelli LR, Meneghetti F, Bellinzoni M. Structural Study of a New MbtI-Inhibitor Complex: Towards an Optimized Model for Structure-Based Drug Discovery. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:1559. [PMID: 38004425 PMCID: PMC10675255 DOI: 10.3390/ph16111559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2023] [Revised: 10/26/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/26/2023] Open
Abstract
MbtI from Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is a Mg2+-dependent salicylate synthase, belonging to the chorismate-utilizing enzyme (CUE) family. As a fundamental player in iron acquisition, MbtI promotes the survival and pathogenicity of Mtb in the infected host. Hence, it has emerged in the last decade as an innovative, potential target for the anti-virulence therapy of tuberculosis. In this context, 5-phenylfuran-2-carboxylic acids have been identified as potent MbtI inhibitors. The first co-crystal structure of MbtI in complex with a member of this class was described in 2020, showing the enzyme adopting an open configuration. Due to the high mobility of the loop adjacent to the binding pocket, large portions of the amino acid chain were not defined in the electron density map, hindering computational efforts aimed at structure-driven ligand optimization. Herein, we report a new, high-resolution co-crystal structure of MbtI with a furan-based derivative, in which the closed configuration of the enzyme allowed tracing the entirety of the active site pocket in the presence of the bound inhibitor. Moreover, we describe a new crystal structure of MbtI in open conformation and in complex with the known inhibitor methyl-AMT, suggesting that in vitro potency is not related to the observed enzyme conformation. These findings will prove fundamental to enhance the potency of this series via rational structure-based drug-design approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Mori
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (S.V.); (F.M.)
| | - Stefania Villa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (S.V.); (F.M.)
| | - Laurent R. Chiarelli
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Lazzaro Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, Via A. Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
| | - Fiorella Meneghetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (S.V.); (F.M.)
| | - Marco Bellinzoni
- Institut Pasteur, Université Paris Cité, CNRS UMR3528, Unité de Microbiologie Structurale, F-75015 Paris, France
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Kumar G, Adhikrao PA. Targeting Mycobacterium tuberculosis iron-scavenging tools: a recent update on siderophores inhibitors. RSC Med Chem 2023; 14:1885-1913. [PMID: 37859726 PMCID: PMC10583813 DOI: 10.1039/d3md00201b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Among the various bacterial infections, tuberculosis (TB) remains a life-threatening infectious disease responsible as the most significant cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. The co-infection of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) in association with TB burdens the healthcare system substantially. Notably, M.tb possesses defence against most antitubercular antibiotic drugs, and the efficacy of existing frontline anti-TB drugs is waning. Also, new and recurring cases of TB from resistant bacteria such as multidrug-resistant TB (MDR), extensively drug-resistant TB (XDR), and totally drug-resistant TB (TDR) strains are increasing. Hence, TB begs the scientific community to explore the new therapeutic class of compounds with their novel mechanism. M.tb requires iron from host cells to sustain, grow, and carry out several biological processes. M.tb has developed strategic methods of acquiring iron from the surrounding environment. In this communication, we discuss an overview of M.tb iron-scavenging tools. Also, we have summarized recently identified MbtA and MbtI inhibitors, which prevent M.tb from scavenging iron. These iron-scavenging tool inhibitors have the potential to be developed as anti-TB agents/drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gautam Kumar
- Department of Natural Products, Chemical Sciences, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Hyderabad (NIPER-Hyderabad) Balanagar Hyderabad 500037 India
| | - Patil Amruta Adhikrao
- Department of Natural Products, Chemical Sciences, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research-Hyderabad (NIPER-Hyderabad) Balanagar Hyderabad 500037 India
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5
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Stelitano G, Cocorullo M, Mori M, Villa S, Meneghetti F, Chiarelli LR. Iron Acquisition and Metabolism as a Promising Target for Antimicrobials (Bottlenecks and Opportunities): Where Do We Stand? Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24076181. [PMID: 37047161 PMCID: PMC10094389 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076181] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The emergence of multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) infections is one of the most crucial challenges currently faced by the scientific community. Developments in the fundamental understanding of their underlying mechanisms may open new perspectives in drug discovery. In this review, we conducted a systematic literature search in PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus, to collect information on innovative strategies to hinder iron acquisition in bacteria. In detail, we discussed the most interesting targets from iron uptake and metabolism pathways, and examined the main chemical entities that exhibit anti-infective activities by interfering with their function. The mechanism of action of each drug candidate was also reviewed, together with its pharmacodynamic, pharmacokinetic, and toxicological properties. The comprehensive knowledge of such an impactful area of research will hopefully reflect in the discovery of newer antibiotics able to effectively tackle the antimicrobial resistance issue.
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Recchia D, Stelitano G, Stamilla A, Gutierrez DL, Degiacomi G, Chiarelli LR, Pasca MR. Mycobacterium abscessus Infections in Cystic Fibrosis Individuals: A Review on Therapeutic Options. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24054635. [PMID: 36902066 PMCID: PMC10002592 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24054635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/25/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium abscessus is an opportunistic pathogen that mainly colonizes and infects cystic fibrosis patients' lungs. M. abscessus is naturally resistant to many antibiotics such as rifamycin, tetracyclines and β-lactams. The current therapeutic regimens are not very effective and are mostly based on repurposed drugs used against Mycobacterium tuberculosis infections. Thus, new approaches and novel strategies are urgently needed. This review aims to provide an overview of the latest ongoing findings to fight M. abscessus infections by analyzing emerging and alternative treatments, novel drug delivery strategies, and innovative molecules.
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Targeting Siderophore-Mediated Iron Uptake in M. abscessus: A New Strategy to Limit the Virulence of Non-Tuberculous Mycobacteria. Pharmaceutics 2023; 15:pharmaceutics15020502. [PMID: 36839823 PMCID: PMC9966845 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics15020502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Targeting pathogenic mechanisms, rather than essential processes, represents a very attractive approach for the development of new antimycobacterial drugs. In this context, iron acquisition routes have recently emerged as potentially druggable pathways. However, the importance of siderophore biosynthesis in the virulence and pathogenicity of M. abscessus (Mab) is still poorly understood. In this study, we investigated the Salicylate Synthase (SaS) of Mab as an innovative molecular target for the development of inhibitors of siderophore production. Notably, Mab-SaS does not have any counterpart in human cells, making it an interesting candidate for drug discovery. Starting from the analysis of the binding of a series of furan-based derivatives, previously identified by our group as inhibitors of MbtI from M. tuberculosis (Mtb), we successfully selected the lead compound 1, exhibiting a strong activity against Mab-SaS (IC50 ≈ 5 µM). Computational studies characterized the key interactions between 1 and the enzyme, highlighting the important roles of Y387, G421, and K207, the latter being one of the residues involved in the first step of the catalytic reaction. These results support the hypothesis that 5-phenylfuran-2-carboxylic acids are also a promising class of Mab-SaS inhibitors, paving the way for the optimization and rational design of more potent derivatives.
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5-(4-Nitrophenyl)furan-2-carboxylic Acid. MOLBANK 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/m1515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The ever-evolving research in the field of antitubercular agents has led to the identification of several new potential drug classes. Among them, 5-phenyl-furan-2-carboxylic acids have emerged as innovative potential therapeutics, targeting iron acquisition in mycobacterial species. In our efforts to characterize the molecular interactions between these compounds and their protein target (MbtI from M. tuberculosis) by means of co-crystallization experiments, we unexpectedly obtained the structure of 5-(4-nitrophenyl)furan-2-carboxylic acid (1). Herein, we describe the preparation of the compound and its analysis by 1H NMR, 13C NMR, HRMS, and SC-XRD.
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9
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Jesus HNR, Rocha DJPG, Ramos RTJ, Silva A, Brenig B, Góes-Neto A, Costa MM, Soares SC, Azevedo V, Aguiar ERGR, Martínez-Martínez L, Ocampo A, Alibi S, Dorta A, Pacheco LGC, Navas J. Pan-genomic analysis of Corynebacterium amycolatum gives insights into molecular mechanisms underpinning the transition to a pathogenic phenotype. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:1011578. [DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1011578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Corynebacterium amycolatum is a nonlipophilic coryneform which is increasingly being recognized as a relevant human and animal pathogen showing multidrug resistance to commonly used antibiotics. However, little is known about the molecular mechanisms involved in transition from colonization to the MDR invasive phenotype in clinical isolates. In this study, we performed a comprehensive pan-genomic analysis of C. amycolatum, including 26 isolates from different countries. We obtained the novel genome sequences of 8 of them, which are multidrug resistant clinical isolates from Spain and Tunisia. They were analyzed together with other 18 complete or draft C. amycolatum genomes retrieved from GenBank. The species C. amycolatum presented an open pan-genome (α = 0.854905), with 3,280 gene families, being 1,690 (51.52%) in the core genome, 1,121 related to accessory genes (34.17%), and 469 related to unique genes (14.29%). Although some classic corynebacterial virulence factors are absent in the species C. amycolatum, we did identify genes associated with immune evasion, toxin, and antiphagocytosis among the predicted putative virulence factors. Additionally, we found genomic evidence for extensive acquisition of antimicrobial resistance genes through genomic islands.
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Methyl 5-(2-Fluoro-4-nitrophenyl)furan-2-carboxylate. MOLBANK 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/m1492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
5-Phenyl-furan-2-carboxylic acids have emerged as a new, promising class of antimycobacterial agents that have the ability to interfere with iron homeostasis. Considering the lack of structural data on these compounds, we analyzed the crystal of a fluorinated ester derivative of 5-(4-nitrophenyl)furan-2-carboxylic acid, one of the most potent candidates in the series. Here, we describe the preparation of methyl 5-(2-fluoro-4-nitrophenyl)furan-2-carboxylate (1) and its analysis by 1H-NMR, 13C-NMR, HRMS, and SC-XRD.
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Synthesis and Assessment of the In Vitro and Ex Vivo Activity of Salicylate Synthase (Mbti) Inhibitors as New Candidates for the Treatment of Mycobacterial Infections. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15080992. [PMID: 36015139 PMCID: PMC9413995 DOI: 10.3390/ph15080992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) causes millions of deaths every year, ranking as one of the most dangerous infectious diseases worldwide. Because several pathogenic strains of M. tuberculosis (Mtb) have developed resistance against most of the established anti-TB drugs, new therapeutic options are urgently needed. An attractive target for the development of new anti-TB agents is the salicylate synthase MbtI, the first enzyme of the mycobacterial siderophore biochemical machinery, absent in human cells. In this work, a set of analogues of 5-(3-cyanophenyl)furan-2-carboxylic acid (I), the most potent MbtI inhibitor identified to date, was synthesized, characterized, and tested to further elucidate the structural requirements for achieving an efficient MbtI inhibition and potent antitubercular activity. The structure–activity relationships (SAR) discussed herein evidenced the importance of the side chain linked to the phenyl moiety to improve the in vitro antimycobacterial activity. In detail, 1f emerged as the most effective analogue against the pathogen, acting without cytotoxicity issues. To deepen the understanding of its mechanism of action, we established a fluorescence-based screening test to quantify the pathogen infectivity within host cells, using MPI-2 murine cells, a robust surrogate for alveolar macrophages. The set-up of the new assay demonstrates significant potential to accelerate the discovery of new anti-TB drugs.
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Carbon–Carbon Bond Formation for the Synthesis of 5-Aryl-2-Substituted Furans Catalyzed by K3[Fe(CN)6]. Catal Letters 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10562-021-03799-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Shyam M, Shilkar D, Rakshit G, Jayaprakash V. Approaches for Targeting the Mycobactin Biosynthesis Pathway for Novel Anti-tubercular Drug Discovery: Where We Stand. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2022; 17:699-715. [PMID: 35575503 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2022.2077328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Several decades of antitubercular drug discovery efforts have focused on novel antitubercular chemotherapies. However, recent efforts have greatly shifted towards countering extremely/multi/total drug-resistant species. Targeting the conditionally essential elements inside Mycobacterium is a relatively new approach against tuberculosis and has received lackluster attention. The siderophore, Mycobactin, is a conditionally essential molecule expressed by mycobacteria in iron-stress conditions. It helps capture the micronutrient iron, essential for the smooth functioning of cellular processes. AREAS COVERED The authors discuss opportunities to target the conditionally essential pathways to help develop newer drugs and prolong the shelf life of existing therapeutics, emphasizing the bottlenecks in fast-tracking antitubercular drug discovery. EXPERT OPINION While the lack of iron supply can cripple bacterial growth and multiplication, excess iron can cause oxidative overload. Constant up-regulation can strain the bacterial synthetic machinery, further slowing its growth. Mycobactin synthesis is tightly controlled by a genetically conserved mega enzyme family via up-regulation (HupB) or down-regulation (IdeR) based on iron availability in its microenvironment. Furthermore, the recycling of siderophores by the MmpL-MmpS4/5 orchestra provides endogenous drug targets to beat the bugs with iron-toxicity contrivance. These processes can be exploited as chinks in the armor of Mycobacterium and be used for new drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mousumi Shyam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
| | - Deepak Shilkar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
| | - Gourav Rakshit
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
| | - Venkatesan Jayaprakash
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, Jharkhand, India
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Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Pulmonary Rehabilitation: From Novel Pharmacotherapeutic Approaches to Management of Post-Tuberculosis Sequelae. J Pers Med 2022; 12:jpm12040569. [PMID: 35455684 PMCID: PMC9027178 DOI: 10.3390/jpm12040569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is still a worldwide public health burden, as more than 1.3 million deaths are expected to be reported in 2021. Even though almost 20 million patients have completed specific anti-TB treatment and survived in 2020, little information is known regarding their pulmonary sequelae, quality of life, and their need to follow rehabilitation services as researchers shifted towards proper diagnosis and treatment rather than analyzing post-disease development. Understanding the underlying immunologic and pathogenic mechanisms during mycobacterial infection, which have been incompletely elucidated until now, and the development of novel anti-TB agents could lead to the proper application of rehabilitation care, as TB sequelae result from interaction between the host and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. This review addresses the importance of host immune responses in TB and novel potential anti-TB drugs’ mechanisms, as well as the assessment of risk factors for post-TB disease and usefulness of guidance and optimization of pulmonary rehabilitation. The use of rehabilitation programs for patients who successfully completed anti-tuberculotic treatment represents a potent multifaceted measure in preventing the increase of mortality rates, as researchers conclude that a patient with a TB diagnosis, even when properly completing pharmacotherapy, is threatened by a potential life loss of 4 years, in comparison to healthy individuals. Dissemination of pulmonary rehabilitation services and constant actualization of protocols could strengthen management of post-TB disease among under-resourced individuals.
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15
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Shyam M, Verma H, Bhattacharje G, Mukherjee P, Singh S, Kamilya S, Jalani P, Das S, Dasgupta A, Mondal A, Das AK, Singh A, Brucoli F, Bagnéris C, Dickman R, Basavanakatti VN, Naresh Babu P, Sankaran V, Dev A, Sinha BN, Bhakta S, Jayaprakash V. Mycobactin Analogues with Excellent Pharmacokinetic Profile Demonstrate Potent Antitubercular Specific Activity and Exceptional Efflux Pump Inhibition. J Med Chem 2022; 65:234-256. [PMID: 34981940 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we have designed and synthesized pyrazoline analogues that partially mimic the structure of mycobactin, to address the requirement of novel therapeutics to tackle the emerging global challenge of antimicrobial resistance (AMR). Our investigation resulted in the identification of novel lead compounds 44 and 49 as potential mycobactin biosynthesis inhibitors against mycobacteria. Moreover, candidates efficiently eradicated intracellularly surviving mycobacteria. Thermofluorimetric analysis and molecular dynamics simulations suggested that compounds 44 and 49 bind to salicyl-AMP ligase (MbtA), a key enzyme in the mycobactin biosynthetic pathway. To the best of our knowledge, these are the first rationally designed mycobactin inhibitors to demonstrate an excellent in vivo pharmacokinetic profile. In addition, these compounds also exhibited more potent whole-cell efflux pump inhibition than known efflux pump inhibitors verapamil and chlorpromazine. Results from this study pave the way for the development of 3-(2-hydroxyphenyl)-5-(aryl)-pyrazolines as a new weapon against superbug-associated AMR challenges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mousumi Shyam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215, Jharkhand, India.,Mycobacteria Research Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, U.K
| | - Harshita Verma
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, U.K
| | - Gourab Bhattacharje
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, India
| | | | | | - Sujit Kamilya
- Solid State and Structural Chemistry Unit, Indian Institute of Science, CV Raman Avenue, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Pushpendu Jalani
- Microbiology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector 10 Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Swetarka Das
- Microbiology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector 10 Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Arunava Dasgupta
- Microbiology Division, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Sector 10 Janakipuram Extension, Sitapur Road, Lucknow 226031, India
| | - Abhishake Mondal
- Solid State and Structural Chemistry Unit, Indian Institute of Science, CV Raman Avenue, Bangalore 560012, India
| | - Amit Kumar Das
- Department of Biotechnology, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur 721302, India
| | | | - Federico Brucoli
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, U.K
| | - Claire Bagnéris
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, U.K
| | - Rachael Dickman
- Pharmaceutical and Biological Chemistry, UCL School of Pharmacy, University of London, London WC1N 1AX, U.K
| | | | | | - Vadivelan Sankaran
- Eurofins Advinus Limited, 21 & 22, Peenya Industrial area, Bengaluru 560058, India
| | - Abhimanyu Dev
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215, Jharkhand, India
| | - Barij Nayan Sinha
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215, Jharkhand, India
| | - Sanjib Bhakta
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, U.K
| | - Venkatesan Jayaprakash
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215, Jharkhand, India
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An Outline of the Latest Crystallographic Studies on Inhibitor-Enzyme Complexes for the Design and Development of New Therapeutics against Tuberculosis. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26237082. [PMID: 34885662 PMCID: PMC8659263 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26237082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2021] [Revised: 11/16/2021] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The elucidation of the structure of enzymes and their complexes with ligands continues to provide invaluable insights for the development of drugs against many diseases, including bacterial infections. After nearly three decades since the World Health Organization’s (WHO) declaration of tuberculosis (TB) as a global health emergency, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) continues to claim millions of lives, remaining among the leading causes of death worldwide. In the last years, several efforts have been devoted to shortening and improving treatment outcomes, and to overcoming the increasing resistance phenomenon. The structural elucidation of enzyme-ligand complexes is fundamental to identify hot-spots, define possible interaction sites, and elaborate strategies to develop optimized molecules with high affinity. This review offers a critical and comprehensive overview of the most recent structural information on traditional and emerging mycobacterial enzymatic targets. A selection of more than twenty enzymes is here discussed, with a special emphasis on the analysis of their binding sites, the definition of the structure–activity relationships (SARs) of their inhibitors, and the study of their main intermolecular interactions. This work corroborates the potential of structural studies, substantiating their relevance in future anti-mycobacterial drug discovery and development efforts.
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Cazzaniga G, Mori M, Chiarelli LR, Gelain A, Meneghetti F, Villa S. Natural products against key Mycobacterium tuberculosis enzymatic targets: Emerging opportunities for drug discovery. Eur J Med Chem 2021; 224:113732. [PMID: 34399099 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2021.113732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
For centuries, natural products (NPs) have served as powerful therapeutics against a variety of human ailments. Nowadays, they still represent invaluable resources for the treatment of many diseases, including bacterial infections. After nearly three decades since the World Health Organization's (WHO) declaration of tuberculosis (TB) as a global health emergency, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) continues to claim millions of lives, remaining among the leading causes of death worldwide. In the last years, several efforts have been devoted to shortening and improving treatment outcomes, and to overcoming the increasing resistance phenomenon. Nature has always provided a virtually unlimited source of bioactive molecules, which have inspired the development of new drugs. NPs are characterized by an exceptional chemical and structural diversity, the result of millennia of evolutionary responses to various stimuli. Thanks to their favorable structural features and their enzymatic origin, they are naturally prone to bind proteins and exhibit bioactivities. Furthermore, their worldwide distribution and ease of accessibility has contributed to promote investigations on their activity. Overall, these characteristics make NPs excellent models for the design of novel therapeutics. This review offers a critical and comprehensive overview of the most promising NPs, isolated from plants, fungi, marine species, and bacteria, endowed with inhibitory properties against traditional and emerging mycobacterial enzymatic targets. A selection of 86 compounds is here discussed, with a special emphasis on their biological activity, structure-activity relationships, and mechanism of action. Our study corroborates the antimycobacterial potential of NPs, substantiating their relevance in future drug discovery and development efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Cazzaniga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Matteo Mori
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Laurent Roberto Chiarelli
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology "Lazzaro Spallanzani", University of Pavia, via A. Ferrata 9, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Arianna Gelain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy
| | - Fiorella Meneghetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy.
| | - Stefania Villa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133, Milano, Italy
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18
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Mori M, Stelitano G, Chiarelli LR, Cazzaniga G, Gelain A, Barlocco D, Pini E, Meneghetti F, Villa S. Synthesis, Characterization, and Biological Evaluation of New Derivatives Targeting MbtI as Antitubercular Agents. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2021; 14:155. [PMID: 33668554 PMCID: PMC7918538 DOI: 10.3390/ph14020155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) causes millions of deaths every year, ranking as one of the most dangerous infectious diseases worldwide. Because several pathogenic strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) have developed resistance against most of the established anti-TB drugs, new therapeutic options are urgently needed. An attractive target for the development of new antitubercular agents is the salicylate synthase MbtI, an essential enzyme for the mycobacterial siderophore biochemical machinery, absent in human cells. A set of analogues of I and II, two of the most potent MbtI inhibitors identified to date, was synthesized, characterized, and tested to elucidate the structural requirements for achieving an efficient MbtI inhibition and a potent antitubercular activity with this class of compounds. The structure-activity relationships (SAR) here discussed evidenced the importance of the furan as part of the pharmacophore and led to the preparation of six new compounds (IV-IX), which gave us the opportunity to examine a hitherto unexplored position of the phenyl ring. Among them emerged 5-(3-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)furan-2-carboxylic acid (IV), endowed with comparable inhibitory properties to the previous leads, but a better antitubercular activity, which is a key issue in MbtI inhibitor research. Therefore, compound IV offers promising prospects for future studies on the development of novel agents against mycobacterial infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Mori
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (G.C.); (A.G.); (D.B.); (E.P.); (S.V.)
| | - Giovanni Stelitano
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Lazzaro Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, via A. Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (G.S.); (L.R.C.)
| | - Laurent R. Chiarelli
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “Lazzaro Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, via A. Ferrata 9, 27100 Pavia, Italy; (G.S.); (L.R.C.)
| | - Giulia Cazzaniga
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (G.C.); (A.G.); (D.B.); (E.P.); (S.V.)
| | - Arianna Gelain
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (G.C.); (A.G.); (D.B.); (E.P.); (S.V.)
| | - Daniela Barlocco
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (G.C.); (A.G.); (D.B.); (E.P.); (S.V.)
| | - Elena Pini
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (G.C.); (A.G.); (D.B.); (E.P.); (S.V.)
| | - Fiorella Meneghetti
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (G.C.); (A.G.); (D.B.); (E.P.); (S.V.)
| | - Stefania Villa
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Milan, Via L. Mangiagalli 25, 20133 Milano, Italy; (M.M.); (G.C.); (A.G.); (D.B.); (E.P.); (S.V.)
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Shyam M, Shilkar D, Verma H, Dev A, Sinha BN, Brucoli F, Bhakta S, Jayaprakash V. The Mycobactin Biosynthesis Pathway: A Prospective Therapeutic Target in the Battle against Tuberculosis. J Med Chem 2020; 64:71-100. [PMID: 33372516 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The alarming rise in drug-resistant clinical cases of tuberculosis (TB) has necessitated the rapid development of newer chemotherapeutic agents with novel mechanisms of action. The mycobactin biosynthesis pathway, conserved only among the mycolata family of actinobacteria, a group of intracellularly surviving bacterial pathogens that includes Mycobacterium tuberculosis, generates a salicyl-capped peptide mycobactin under iron-stress conditions in host macrophages to support the iron demands of the pathogen. This in vivo essentiality makes this less explored mycobactin biosynthesis pathway a promising endogenous target for novel lead-compounds discovery. In this Perspective, we have provided an up-to-date account of drug discovery efforts targeting selected enzymes (MbtI, MbtA, MbtM, and PPTase) from the mbt gene cluster (mbtA-mbtN). Furthermore, a succinct discussion on non-specific mycobactin biosynthesis inhibitors and the Trojan horse approach adopted to impair iron metabolism in mycobacteria has also been included in this Perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mousumi Shyam
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215 Jharkhand, India.,Mycobacteria Research Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, U.K
| | - Deepak Shilkar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215 Jharkhand, India
| | - Harshita Verma
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, U.K
| | - Abhimanyu Dev
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215 Jharkhand, India
| | - Barij Nayan Sinha
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215 Jharkhand, India
| | - Federico Brucoli
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, U.K
| | - Sanjib Bhakta
- Mycobacteria Research Laboratory, Department of Biological Sciences, Institute of Structural and Molecular Biology, Birkbeck, University of London, Malet Street, London WC1E 7HX, U.K
| | - Venkatesan Jayaprakash
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Technology, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi 835215 Jharkhand, India
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6-Hydroxy-2-methylbenzofuran-4-carboxylic Acid. MOLBANK 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/m1143] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
6-Hydroxy-2-methylbenzofuran-4-carboxylic acid was synthesized in two steps, starting from 3,5-dihydroxybenzoate. The product was obtained through a direct thermal one-pot cyclization with propargyl bromide, followed by a base-catalyzed hydrolysis. Its molecular structure was elucidated by means of mono- and bidimensional NMR techniques, ESI-MS, FT-IR and single-crystal X-ray diffraction.
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