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An Isochroman Analog of CD3254 and Allyl-, Isochroman-Analogs of NEt-TMN Prove to Be More Potent Retinoid-X-Receptor (RXR) Selective Agonists Than Bexarotene. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232416213. [PMID: 36555852 PMCID: PMC9782500 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232416213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Bexarotene is an FDA-approved drug for the treatment of cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL); however, its use provokes or disrupts other retinoid-X-receptor (RXR)-dependent nuclear receptor pathways and thereby incites side effects including hypothyroidism and raised triglycerides. Two novel bexarotene analogs, as well as three unique CD3254 analogs and thirteen novel NEt-TMN analogs, were synthesized and characterized for their ability to induce RXR agonism in comparison to bexarotene (1). Several analogs in all three groups possessed an isochroman ring substitution for the bexarotene aliphatic group. Analogs were modeled for RXR binding affinity, and EC50 as well as IC50 values were established for all analogs in a KMT2A-MLLT3 leukemia cell line. All analogs were assessed for liver-X-receptor (LXR) activity in an LXRE system to gauge the potential for the compounds to provoke raised triglycerides by increasing LXR activity, as well as to drive LXRE-mediated transcription of brain ApoE expression as a marker for potential therapeutic use in neurodegenerative disorders. Preliminary results suggest these compounds display a broad spectrum of off-target activities. However, many of the novel compounds were observed to be more potent than 1. While some RXR agonists cross-signal the retinoic acid receptor (RAR), many of the rexinoids in this work displayed reduced RAR activity. The isochroman group did not appear to substantially reduce RXR activity on its own. The results of this study reveal that modifying potent, selective rexinoids like bexarotene, CD3254, and NEt-TMN can provide rexinoids with increased RXR selectivity, decreased potential for cross-signaling, and improved anti-proliferative characteristics in leukemia models compared to 1.
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Manhas KR, Marshall PA, Wagner CE, Jurutka PW, Mancenido MV, Debray HZ, Blattman JN. Rexinoids Modulate Effector T Cell Expression of Mucosal Homing Markers CCR9 and α4β7 Integrin and Direct Their Migration In Vitro. Front Immunol 2022; 13:746484. [PMID: 35154092 PMCID: PMC8829570 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.746484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Altering T cell trafficking to mucosal regions can enhance immune responses towards pathogenic infections and cancers at these sites, leading to better outcomes. All-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) promotes T cell migration to mucosal surfaces by inducing transcription of the mucosal-homing receptors CCR9 and α4β7 via binding to retinoic acid receptors (RARs), which heterodimerize with retinoid X receptors (RXRs) to function. However, the unstable nature and toxicity of ATRA limit its use as a widespread treatment modality for mucosal diseases. Therefore, identifying alternatives that could reduce or eliminate the use of ATRA are needed. Rexinoids are synthetically derived compounds structurally similar to ATRA. Originally named for their ability to bind RXRs, rexinoids can enhance RAR-mediated gene transcription. Furthermore, rexinoids are more stable than ATRA and possess an improved safety profile, making them attractive candidates for use in clinical settings. Here we show that select novel rexinoids act as ATRA mimics, as they cause increased CCR9 and α4β7 expression and enhanced migration to the CCR9 ligand, CCL25 in vitro, even in the absence of ATRA. Conversely, other rexinoids act synergistically with ATRA, as culturing cells with suboptimal doses of both compounds resulted in CCR9 expression and migration to CCL25. Overall, our findings show that rexinoids can be used independently or synergistically with ATRA to promote mucosal homing of T cells in vitro, and lends support for the prospective clinical use of these compounds in immunotherapeutic approaches for pathogenic infections or cancers at mucosal surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavita R. Manhas
- Biodesign Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines, and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
| | - Pamela A. Marshall
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University West Campus, Glendale, AZ, United States
| | - Carl E. Wagner
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University West Campus, Glendale, AZ, United States
| | - Peter W. Jurutka
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University West Campus, Glendale, AZ, United States
| | - Michelle V. Mancenido
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University West Campus, Glendale, AZ, United States
| | - Hannah Z. Debray
- Biodesign Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines, and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
| | - Joseph N. Blattman
- Biodesign Center for Immunotherapy, Vaccines, and Virotherapy, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
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3
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Reich LA, Moerland JA, Leal AS, Zhang D, Carapellucci S, Lockwood B, Jurutka PW, Marshall PA, Wagner CE, Liby KT. The rexinoid V-125 reduces tumor growth in preclinical models of breast and lung cancer. Sci Rep 2022; 12:293. [PMID: 34997154 PMCID: PMC8742020 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-04415-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Rexinoids are ligands which activate retinoid X receptors (RXRs), regulating transcription of genes involved in cancer-relevant processes. Rexinoids have anti-neoplastic activity in multiple preclinical studies. Bexarotene, used to treat cutaneous T cell lymphoma, is the only FDA-approved rexinoid. Bexarotene has also been evaluated in clinical trials for lung and metastatic breast cancer, wherein subsets of patients responded despite advanced disease. By modifying structures of known rexinoids, we can improve potency and toxicity. We previously screened a series of novel rexinoids and selected V-125 as the lead based on performance in optimized in vitro assays. To validate our screening paradigm, we tested V-125 in clinically relevant mouse models of breast and lung cancer. V-125 significantly (p < 0.001) increased time to tumor development in the MMTV-Neu breast cancer model. Treatment of established mammary tumors with V-125 significantly (p < 0.05) increased overall survival. In the A/J lung cancer model, V-125 significantly (p < 0.01) decreased number, size, and burden of lung tumors. Although bexarotene elevated triglycerides and cholesterol in these models, V-125 demonstrated an improved safety profile. These studies provide evidence that our screening paradigm predicts novel rexinoid efficacy and suggest that V-125 could be developed into a new cancer therapeutic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyndsey A Reich
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine, B430 Life Science Building, 1355 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Jessica A Moerland
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine, B430 Life Science Building, 1355 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Ana S Leal
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine, B430 Life Science Building, 1355 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Di Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine, B430 Life Science Building, 1355 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Sarah Carapellucci
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine, B430 Life Science Building, 1355 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Beth Lockwood
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine, B430 Life Science Building, 1355 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA
| | - Peter W Jurutka
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Pamela A Marshall
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Carl E Wagner
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ, USA
| | - Karen T Liby
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University College of Osteopathic Medicine, B430 Life Science Building, 1355 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI, 48824, USA.
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Jurutka PW, di Martino O, Reshi S, Mallick S, Sabir ZL, Staniszewski LJP, Warda A, Maiorella EL, Minasian A, Davidson J, Ibrahim SJ, Raban S, Haddad D, Khamisi M, Suban SL, Dawson BJ, Candia R, Ziller JW, Lee MY, Liu C, Liu W, Marshall PA, Welch JS, Wagner CE. Modeling, Synthesis, and Biological Evaluation of Potential Retinoid-X-Receptor (RXR) Selective Agonists: Analogs of 4-[1-(3,5,5,8,8-Pentamethyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahyro-2-naphthyl)ethynyl]benzoic Acid (Bexarotene) and 6-(Ethyl(4-isobutoxy-3-isopropylphenyl)amino)nicotinic Acid (NEt-4IB). Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222212371. [PMID: 34830251 PMCID: PMC8624485 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222212371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Five novel analogs of 6-(ethyl)(4-isobutoxy-3-isopropylphenyl)amino)nicotinic acid—or NEt-4IB—in addition to seven novel analogs of 4-[1-(3,5,5,8,8-pentamethyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-2-naphthyl)ethynyl]benzoic acid (bexarotene) were prepared and evaluated for selective retinoid-X-receptor (RXR) agonism alongside bexarotene (1), a FDA-approved drug for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL). Bexarotene treatment elicits side-effects by provoking or disrupting other RXR-dependent pathways. Analogs were assessed by the modeling of binding to RXR and then evaluated in a human cell-based RXR-RXR mammalian-2-hybrid (M2H) system as well as a RXRE-controlled transcriptional system. The analogs were also tested in KMT2A-MLLT3 leukemia cells and the EC50 and IC50 values were determined for these compounds. Moreover, the analogs were assessed for activation of LXR in an LXRE system as drivers of ApoE expression and subsequent use as potential therapeutics in neurodegenerative disorders, and the results revealed that these compounds exerted a range of differential LXR-RXR activation and selectivity. Furthermore, several of the novel analogs in this study exhibited reduced RARE cross-signaling, implying RXR selectivity. These results demonstrate that modification of partial agonists such as NEt-4IB and potent rexinoids such as bexarotene can lead to compounds with improved RXR selectivity, decreased cross-signaling of other RXR-dependent nuclear receptors, increased LXRE-heterodimer selectivity, and enhanced anti-proliferative potential in leukemia cell lines compared to therapeutics such as 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter W. Jurutka
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
- Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
| | - Orsola di Martino
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; (O.d.M.); (J.S.W.)
| | - Sabeeha Reshi
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Sanchita Mallick
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Zhela L. Sabir
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Lech J. P. Staniszewski
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Ankedo Warda
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
- Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ 85004, USA
| | - Emma L. Maiorella
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Ani Minasian
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Jesse Davidson
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Samir J. Ibrahim
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - San Raban
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Dena Haddad
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Madleen Khamisi
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Stephanie L. Suban
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Bradley J. Dawson
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Riley Candia
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - Joseph W. Ziller
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA;
| | - Ming-Yue Lee
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85201, USA; (M.-Y.L.); (C.L.); (W.L.)
| | - Chang Liu
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85201, USA; (M.-Y.L.); (C.L.); (W.L.)
| | - Wei Liu
- School of Molecular Sciences, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85201, USA; (M.-Y.L.); (C.L.); (W.L.)
| | - Pamela A. Marshall
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
| | - John S. Welch
- Department of Internal Medicine, Washington University, St. Louis, MO 63110, USA; (O.d.M.); (J.S.W.)
| | - Carl E. Wagner
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ 85306, USA; (P.W.J.); (S.R.); (S.M.); (Z.L.S.); (L.J.P.S.); (A.W.); (E.L.M.); (A.M.); (J.D.); (S.J.I.); (S.R.); (D.H.); (M.K.); (S.L.S.); (B.J.D.); (R.C.); (P.A.M.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-602-543-6937
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Mallick S, Marshall PA, Wagner CE, Heck MC, Sabir ZL, Sabir MS, Dussik CM, Grozic A, Kaneko I, Jurutka PW. Evaluating Novel RXR Agonists That Induce ApoE and Tyrosine Hydroxylase in Cultured Human Glioblastoma Cells. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:857-871. [PMID: 33570383 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.0c00707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
There is considerable interest in identifying effective and safe drugs for neurodegenerative disorders. Cell culture and animal model work have demonstrated that modulating gene expression through RXR-mediated pathways may mitigate or reverse cognitive decline. However, because RXR is a dimeric partner for several transcription factors, activating off-target transcription is a concern with RXR ligands (rexinoids). This off-target gene modulation leads to unwanted side effects that can include low thyroid function and significant hyperlipidemia. There is a need to develop rexinoids that have binding specificity for subsets of RXR heterodimers, to drive desired gene modulation, but that do not induce spurious effects. Herein, we describe experiments in which we analyze a series of novel and previously reported rexinoids for their ability to modulate specific gene pathways implicated in neurodegenerative disorders employing a U87 cell culture model. We demonstrate that, compared to the FDA-approved rexinoid bexarotene (1), several of these compounds are equally or more effective at stimulating gene expression via LXREs or Nurr1/NBREs and are superior at inducing ApoE and/or tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) gene and protein expression, including analogs 8, 9, 13, 14, 20, 23, and 24, suggesting a possible therapeutic role for these compounds in Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease (PD). A subset of these potent RXR agonists can synergize with a presumed Nurr1 ligand and antimalarial drug (amodiaquine) to further enhance Nurr1/NBREs-directed transcription. This novel discovery has potential clinical implications for treatment of PD since it suggests that the combination of an RXR agonist and a Nurr1 ligand can significantly enhance RXR-Nurr1 heterodimer activity and drive enhanced therapeutic expression of the TH gene to increase endogenous synthesis of dopamine. These data indicate that is it possible and prudent to develop novel rexinoids for testing of gene expression and side effect profiles for use in potential treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, as individual rexinoids can have markedly different gene expression profiles but similar structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanchita Mallick
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
| | - Pamela A. Marshall
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
| | - Carl E. Wagner
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
| | - Michael C. Heck
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
| | - Zhela L. Sabir
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
| | - Marya S. Sabir
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
| | - Christoper M. Dussik
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
| | - Aleksandra Grozic
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
| | - Ichiro Kaneko
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
| | - Peter W. Jurutka
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Arizona State University, Phoenix, Arizona 85306, United States
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Cunniffe N, Coles A. Promoting remyelination in multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 2021; 268:30-44. [PMID: 31190170 PMCID: PMC7815564 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-019-09421-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The greatest unmet need in multiple sclerosis (MS) are treatments that delay, prevent or reverse progression. One of the most tractable strategies to achieve this is to therapeutically enhance endogenous remyelination; doing so restores nerve conduction and prevents neurodegeneration. The biology of remyelination-centred on the activation, migration, proliferation and differentiation of oligodendrocyte progenitors-has been increasingly clearly defined and druggable targets have now been identified in preclinical work leading to early phase clinical trials. With some phase 2 studies reporting efficacy, the prospect of licensed remyelinating treatments in MS looks increasingly likely. However, there remain many unanswered questions and recent research has revealed a further dimension of complexity to this process that has refined our view of the barriers to remyelination in humans. In this review, we describe the process of remyelination, why this fails in MS, and the latest research that has given new insights into this process. We also discuss the translation of this research into clinical trials, highlighting the treatments that have been tested to date, and the different methods of detecting remyelination in people.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nick Cunniffe
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
| | - Alasdair Coles
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
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Qin J, Liu J, Wu C, Xu J, Tang B, Guo K, Chen X, Liu W, Wu T, Zhou H, Fang M, Wu Z. Synthesis and biological evaluation of (3/4-(pyrimidin-2-ylamino)benzoyl)-based hydrazine-1-carboxamide/carbothioamide derivatives as novel RXRα antagonists. J Enzyme Inhib Med Chem 2020; 35:880-896. [PMID: 32223461 PMCID: PMC7170311 DOI: 10.1080/14756366.2020.1740692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Abnormal alterations in the expression and biological function of retinoid X receptor alpha (RXRα) have a key role in the development of cancer. Potential modulators of RXRα as anticancer agents are explored in growing numbers of studies. A series of (4/3-(pyrimidin-2-ylamino)benzoyl)hydrazine-1-carboxamide/carbothioamide derivatives are synthesised and evaluated for anticancer activity as RXRα antagonists in this study. Among all synthesised compounds, 6A shows strong antagonist activity (half maximal effective concentration (EC50) = 1.68 ± 0.22 µM), potent anti-proliferative activity against human cancer cell lines HepG2 and A549 cells (50% inhibition of cell viability (IC50) values < 10 µM), and low cytotoxic property in normal cells such as LO2 and MRC-5 cells (IC50 values > 100 µM). Further bioassays indicate that 6A inhibits 9-cis-RA-induced activity in a dose-dependent manner, and selectively binds to RXRα-=LΒD with submicromolar affinity (Kd = 1.20 × 10−7 M). 6A induces time-and dose-dependent cleavage of poly ADP-ribose polymerase, and significantly stimulates caspase-3 activity, leading to RXRα-dependent apoptosis. Finally, molecular docking studies predict the binding modes for RXRα-LBD and 6A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingbo Qin
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jie Liu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Chunxiao Wu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Jianwen Xu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Bowen Tang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Kaiqiang Guo
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Xiaohui Chen
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Weihao Liu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Tong Wu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Hu Zhou
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Meijuan Fang
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
| | - Zhen Wu
- Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory of Innovative Drug Target Research and State Key Laboratory of Cellular Stress Biology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Xiamen University, Xiamen, China
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8
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Ur Rashid H, Rasool S, Ali Y, Khan K, Martines MAU. Anti-cancer potential of sophoridine and its derivatives: Recent progress and future perspectives. Bioorg Chem 2020; 99:103863. [PMID: 32334197 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.103863] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 04/16/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Cancer is the second leading cause of mortality and has resulted in about 9.6 million deaths around the world in 2018. Cancer-caused deaths are expected to be 11.5 million by 2030 all over the world. Because of the fatal nature of cancer, substantial efforts are made all over the world to combat it. Phytoconstituents such as certain alkaloids, saponins, tannins, polyphenols, and terpenoids exhibit anticancer effects. Sophoridine is a tetracyclic quinolizidine alkaloid isolated from the stem and leaves of medicinal plants Sophora alopecuroides L., and Euchresta japonica Benth, and roots of Sophora alopecuroides Ait. Chinese Food and Drug Administration (CFDA) approved sophoridine as an antitumor agent in 2005. This review covers the antitumor activities of sophoridine and its derivatives. The efficacy of sophoridine analogs is expressed with respect to their half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50 values). Structure-activity relationship (SAR) study for most of the sophoridine derivatives has been explained. Moreover, the current market of anticancer drugs and its expected growth are discussed. Prospects provide suggestions and clues for novel sophoridine-based anticancer agents with enhanced expected efficacy and minimum toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haroon Ur Rashid
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul, Campo Grande, MS, Brazil; Department of Chemistry, Sarhad University of Science and Information Technology, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.
| | - Shagufta Rasool
- Department of Chemistry, Sarhad University of Science and Information Technology, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Yousaf Ali
- Department of Chemistry, Sarhad University of Science and Information Technology, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
| | - Kamin Khan
- Department of Chemistry, Sarhad University of Science and Information Technology, Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
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9
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Fanaee-Danesh E, Gali CC, Tadic J, Zandl-Lang M, Carmen Kober A, Agujetas VR, de Dios C, Tam-Amersdorfer C, Stracke A, Albrecher NM, Manavalan APC, Reiter M, Sun Y, Colell A, Madeo F, Malle E, Panzenboeck U. Astaxanthin exerts protective effects similar to bexarotene in Alzheimer's disease by modulating amyloid-beta and cholesterol homeostasis in blood-brain barrier endothelial cells. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2019; 1865:2224-2245. [PMID: 31055081 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2019.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 04/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by overproduction, impaired clearance, and deposition of amyloid-β peptides (Aβ) and connected to cholesterol homeostasis. Since the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is involved in these processes, we investigated effects of the retinoid X receptor agonist, bexarotene (Bex), and the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α agonist and antioxidant, astaxanthin (Asx), on pathways of cellular cholesterol metabolism, amyloid precursor protein processing/Aβ production and transfer at the BBB in vitro using primary porcine brain capillary endothelial cells (pBCEC), and in 3xTg AD mice. Asx/Bex downregulated transcription/activity of amyloidogenic BACE1 and reduced Aβ oligomers and ~80 kDa intracellular 6E10-reactive APP/Aβ species, while upregulating non-amyloidogenic ADAM10 and soluble (s)APPα production in pBCEC. Asx/Bex enhanced Aβ clearance to the apical/plasma compartment of the in vitro BBB model. Asx/Bex increased expression levels of ABCA1, LRP1, and/or APOA-I. Asx/Bex promoted cholesterol efflux, partly via PPARα/RXR activation, while cholesterol biosynthesis/esterification was suppressed. Silencing of LRP-1 or inhibition of ABCA1 by probucol reversed Asx/Bex-mediated effects on levels of APP/Aβ species in pBCEC. Murine (m)BCEC isolated from 3xTg AD mice treated with Bex revealed elevated expression of APOE and ABCA1. Asx/Bex reduced BACE1 and increased LRP-1 expression in mBCEC from 3xTg AD mice when compared to vehicle-treated or non-Tg treated mice. In parallel, Asx/Bex reduced levels of Aβ oligomers in mBCEC and Aβ species in brain soluble and insoluble fractions of 3xTg AD mice. Our results suggest that both agonists exert beneficial effects at the BBB by balancing cholesterol homeostasis and enhancing clearance of Aβ from cerebrovascular endothelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Fanaee-Danesh
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Chaitanya Chakravarthi Gali
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Jelena Tadic
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Martina Zandl-Lang
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Alexandra Carmen Kober
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Vicente Roca Agujetas
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), IDIBAPS, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cristina de Dios
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), IDIBAPS, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain; Department of Biomedicine, Facultat de Medicina, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carmen Tam-Amersdorfer
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Anika Stracke
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Nicole Maria Albrecher
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | | | - Marielies Reiter
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Yidan Sun
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Anna Colell
- Department of Cell Death and Proliferation, Institut d'Investigacions Biomèdiques de Barcelona, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), IDIBAPS, Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas (CIBERNED), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Frank Madeo
- Institute of Molecular Biosciences, University of Graz, Graz, Austria; BioTechMed Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Ernst Malle
- Division of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Gottfried Schatz Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Ute Panzenboeck
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria.
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10
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de Almeida NR, Conda-Sheridan M. A review of the molecular design and biological activities of RXR agonists. Med Res Rev 2019; 39:1372-1397. [PMID: 30941786 DOI: 10.1002/med.21578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2018] [Revised: 03/09/2019] [Accepted: 03/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
An attractive approach to combat disease is to target theregulation of cell function. At the heart of this task are nuclear receptors (NRs); which control functions such as gene transcription. Arguably, the key player in this regulatory machinery is the retinoid X receptor (RXR). This NR associates with a third of the NRs found in humans. Scientists have hypothesized that controlling the activity of RXR is an attractive approach to control cellular functions that modulate diseases such as cancer, diabetes, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. In this review, we will describe the key features of the RXR, present a historic perspective of the first RXR agonists, and discuss various templates that have been reported to activate RXR with a focus on their molecular structure, biological activity, and limitations. Finally, we will present an outlook of the field and future directions and considerations to synthesize or modulate RXR agonists to make these compounds a clinical reality.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martin Conda-Sheridan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska
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11
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Zhang D, Leal AS, Carapellucci S, Shahani PH, Bhogal JS, Ibrahim S, Raban S, Jurutka PW, Marshall PA, Sporn MB, Wagner CE, Liby KT. Testing Novel Pyrimidinyl Rexinoids: A New Paradigm for Evaluating Rexinoids for Cancer Prevention. Cancer Prev Res (Phila) 2019; 12:211-224. [PMID: 30760500 DOI: 10.1158/1940-6207.capr-18-0317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2018] [Revised: 10/10/2018] [Accepted: 02/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Rexinoids, selective ligands for retinoid X receptors (RXR), have shown promise in preventing many types of cancer. However, the limited efficacy and undesirable lipidemic side-effects of the only clinically approved rexinoid, bexarotene, drive the search for new and better rexinoids. Here we report the evaluation of novel pyrimidinyl (Py) analogues of two known chemopreventive rexinoids, bexarotene (Bex) and LG100268 (LG268) in a new paradigm. We show that these novel derivatives were more effective agents than bexarotene for preventing lung carcinogenesis induced by a carcinogen. In addition, these new analogues have an improved safety profile. PyBex caused less elevation of plasma triglyceride levels than bexarotene, while PyLG268 reduced plasma cholesterol levels and hepatomegaly compared with LG100268. Notably, this new paradigm mechanistically emphasizes the immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory activities of rexinoids. We reveal new immunomodulatory actions of the above rexinoids, especially their ability to diminish the percentage of macrophages and myeloid-derived suppressor cells in the lung and to redirect activation of M2 macrophages. The rexinoids also potently inhibit critical inflammatory mediators including IL6, IL1β, CCL9, and nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) induced by lipopolysaccharide. Moreover, in vitro iNOS and SREBP (sterol regulatory element-binding protein) induction assays correlate with in vivo efficacy and toxicity, respectively. Our results not only report novel pyrimidine derivatives of existing rexinoids, but also describe a series of biological screening assays that will guide the synthesis of additional rexinoids. Further progress in rexinoid synthesis, potency, and safety should eventually lead to a clinically acceptable and useful new drug for patients with cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Ana S Leal
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Sarah Carapellucci
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Pritika H Shahani
- Arizona State University, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Glendale, Arizona
| | - Jaskaran S Bhogal
- Arizona State University, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Glendale, Arizona
| | - Samir Ibrahim
- Arizona State University, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Glendale, Arizona
| | - San Raban
- Arizona State University, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Glendale, Arizona
| | - Peter W Jurutka
- Arizona State University, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Glendale, Arizona
| | - Pamela A Marshall
- Arizona State University, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Glendale, Arizona
| | - Michael B Sporn
- Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Department of Pharmacology, Lebanon, New Hampshire
| | - Carl E Wagner
- Arizona State University, School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, Glendale, Arizona
| | - Karen T Liby
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan.
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12
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Wagner CE, Jurutka PW. Methods to Generate an Array of Novel Rexinoids by SAR on a Potent Retinoid X Receptor Agonist: A Case Study with NEt-TMN. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 2019:109-121. [PMID: 31359392 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9585-1_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The methods described in this chapter concern procedures for the design, synthesis, and in vitro biological evaluation of an array of potent retinoid-X-receptor (RXR) agonists employing 6-(ethyl(5,5,8,8-tetramethyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydronaphthalen-2-yl)amino)nicotinic acid (NEt-TMN), and recently reported NEt-TMN analogs, as a case study. These methods have been extensively applied beyond the present case study to generate several analogs of other potent RXR agonists (rexinoids), particularly the RXR agonist known as bexarotene (Bex), a Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved drug for cutaneous T-cell lymphoma that is also often prescribed, off-label, for breast, lung, and other human cancers. Common side effects with Bex treatment include hypertriglyceridemia and hypothyroidism, because of off-target activation or inhibition of other nuclear receptor pathways impacted by RXR. Because rexinoids are often selective for RXR, versus the retinoic-acid-receptor (RAR), cutaneous toxicity is often avoided as a side effect for rexinoid treatment. Several other potent RXR agonists, and their analogs, have been reported in the literature and rigorously evaluated (often in comparison to Bex) as potential cancer therapeutics with unique activity and side-effect profiles. Some of the more prominent examples include LGD100268, CD3254, and 9-cis-UAB30, to name only a few. Hence, the methods described herein are more widely applicable to a diverse array of RXR agonists.In terms of design, the structure-activity relationship (SAR) study is usually performed by modifying three distinct areas of the rexinoid base structure, either of the nonpolar or polar sides of the rexinoid and/or the linkage that joins them. For the synthesis of the modified base-structure analogs, often identical synthetic strategies used to access the base-structure are applied; however, reasonable alternative synthetic routes may need to be explored if the modified analog intermediates encounter bottlenecks where yields are negligible for a given step in the base-structure route. In fact, this particular problem was encountered and successfully resolved in our case study for generating an array of NEt-TMN analogs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl E Wagner
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ, USA.
| | - Peter W Jurutka
- School of Mathematical and Natural Sciences, New College of Interdisciplinary Arts and Sciences, Arizona State University, Glendale, AZ, USA
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13
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Cole KLH, Early JJ, Lyons DA. Drug discovery for remyelination and treatment of MS. Glia 2017; 65:1565-1589. [PMID: 28618073 DOI: 10.1002/glia.23166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Glia constitute the majority of the cells in our nervous system, yet there are currently no drugs that target glia for the treatment of disease. Given ongoing discoveries of the many roles of glia in numerous diseases of the nervous system, this is likely to change in years to come. Here we focus on the possibility that targeting the oligodendrocyte lineage to promote regeneration of myelin (remyelination) represents a therapeutic strategy for the treatment of the demyelinating disease multiple sclerosis, MS. We discuss how hypothesis driven studies have identified multiple targets and pathways that can be manipulated to promote remyelination in vivo, and how this work has led to the first ever remyelination clinical trials. We also highlight how recent chemical discovery screens have identified a host of small molecule compounds that promote oligodendrocyte differentiation in vitro. Some of these compounds have also been shown to promote myelin regeneration in vivo, with one already being trialled in humans. Promoting oligodendrocyte differentiation and remyelination represents just one potential strategy for the treatment of MS. The pathology of MS is complex, and its complete amelioration may require targeting multiple biological processes in parallel. Therefore, we present an overview of new technologies and models for phenotypic analyses and screening that can be exploited to study complex cell-cell interactions in in vitro and in vivo systems. Such technological platforms will provide insight into fundamental mechanisms and increase capacities for drug-discovery of relevance to glia and currently intractable disorders of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katy L H Cole
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, MS Society Centre for Translational Research, Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - Jason J Early
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, MS Society Centre for Translational Research, Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
| | - David A Lyons
- Centre for Neuroregeneration, MS Society Centre for Translational Research, Euan MacDonald Centre for Motor Neurone Disease Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, EH16 4SB, United Kingdom
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