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Hoffman GR, Giduturi C, Cordaro NJ, Yoshida CT, Schoffstall AM, Stabio ME, Zuckerman MD. Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Xylazine. ACS Chem Neurosci 2024; 15:2091-2098. [PMID: 38747710 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.4c00172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Xylazine (also known as "tranq") is a potent nonopioid veterinary sedative that has recently experienced a surge in use as a drug adulterant, most often combined with illicitly manufactured fentanyl. This combination may heighten the risk of fatal overdose. Xylazine has no known antidote approved for use in humans, and age-adjusted overdose deaths involving xylazine were 35 times higher in 2021 than 2018. In April 2023, the Biden Administration declared xylazine-laced fentanyl an emerging drug threat in the United States. In 2022, the Drug Enforcement Agency (DEA) reported nearly a quarter of seized fentanyl powder contained xylazine. This dramatic increase in prevalence has solidified the status of xylazine as an emerging drug of abuse and an evolving threat to public health. The following narrative review outlines the synthesis, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, and adverse effects of xylazine, as well as the role it may play in the ongoing opioid epidemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin R Hoffman
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
| | - Chetan Giduturi
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
| | - Nicholas J Cordaro
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
| | - Cassidy T Yoshida
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
| | - Allen M Schoffstall
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Colorado Colorado Springs, Colorado Springs, Colorado 80918, United States
| | - Maureen E Stabio
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
| | - Matthew D Zuckerman
- Department of Emergency Medicine, University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, Colorado 80045, United States
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2
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Abstract
Heteroatom-centered diradical(oid)s have been in the focus of molecular main group chemistry for nearly 30 years. During this time, the diradical concept has evolved and the focus has shifted to the rational design of diradical(oid)s for specific applications. This review article begins with some important theoretical considerations of the diradical and tetraradical concept. Based on these theoretical considerations, the design of diradical(oid)s in terms of ligand choice, steric, symmetry, electronic situation, element choice, and reactivity is highlighted with examples. In particular, heteroatom-centered diradical reactions are discussed and compared with closed-shell reactions such as pericyclic additions. The comparison between closed-shell reactivity, which proceeds in a concerted manner, and open-shell reactivity, which proceeds in a stepwise fashion, along with considerations of diradical(oid) design, provides a rational understanding of this interesting and unusual class of compounds. The application of diradical(oid)s, for example in small molecule activation or as molecular switches, is also highlighted. The final part of this review begins with application-related details of the spectroscopy of diradical(oid)s, followed by an update of the heteroatom-centered diradical(oid)s and tetraradical(oid)s published in the last 10 years since 2013.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Hinz
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie (AOC), Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT), Engesserstrasse 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Jonas Bresien
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Frank Breher
- Institut für Anorganische Chemie (AOC), Karlsruher Institut für Technologie (KIT), Engesserstrasse 15, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Axel Schulz
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Strasse 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany
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Rosenboom J, Villinger A, Schulz A, Bresien J. Concerted addition of aldehydes to the singlet biradical [P(μ-NTer)] 2. Dalton Trans 2022; 51:13479-13487. [PMID: 35997123 DOI: 10.1039/d2dt02229j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The reaction of the singlet biradical [P(μ-NTer)]2 with various aldehydes selectively yielded the corresponding [2.1.1]-bicyclic addition products in a very fast reaction. All products were fully characterized, including by NMR and vibrational spectroscopy as well as single-crystal X-ray diffraction. The mechanism of the addition was investigated theoretically using high-level ab initio methods (CCSD(T) with triple- and quadruple-zeta basis sets) and corresponds to a concerted cycloaddition reaction with a very low activation barrier. For comparison, the mechanisms of the literature-known cycloadditions of H2, alkenes, and alkynes were also studied, indicating a similar reaction profile for all unsaturated reactants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Rosenboom
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
| | - Alexander Villinger
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
| | - Axel Schulz
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany. .,Leibniz Institute for Catalysis, Albert-Einstein-Str. 29a, 18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Jonas Bresien
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
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Beer H, Linke A, Bresien J, Mlostoń G, Celeda M, Villinger A, Schulz A. Synthesis of Bicyclic P,S-Heterocycles via the Addition of Thioketones to a Phosphorus-Centered Open-Shell Singlet Biradical. Inorg Chem 2022; 61:2031-2038. [PMID: 35041414 DOI: 10.1021/acs.inorgchem.1c03207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Formal addition reactions between the open-shell singlet biradical [P(μ-NTer)]2 (1Ter) and xanthione, thioxanthione, as well as ferrocenyl naphthyl thioketone were studied in detail. Reactions were performed at room temperature and led to the formation of strained [2.1.1]-cage P,S-heterocycles (3). All addition products were isolated and fully characterized by spectroscopic methods. Furthermore, reversible cleavage of the xanthenthione-biradical addition product into the parent compounds (biradical and thioketone) could be demonstrated by 31P{1H} NMR spectroscopy. The thermodynamic stability of all cyclization products with respect to the elimination of thioketone was studied by quantum-chemical computations including solvent effects. Regarding the dissociation of addition products 3 into the fragment molecules 1Ter and ketone/thioketone, calculations prove that a significantly larger distortion energy in ketones compared with thioketones causes lower thermodynamic stability of the ketone adducts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Beer
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Alexander Linke
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, D-18059 Rostock, Germany.,Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse eV, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Jonas Bresien
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Grzegorz Mlostoń
- Department of Organic and Applied Chemistry, University of Łódź, Tamka 12, PL-91-403 Łódź Poland
| | - Małgorzata Celeda
- Department of Organic and Applied Chemistry, University of Łódź, Tamka 12, PL-91-403 Łódź Poland
| | - Alexander Villinger
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, D-18059 Rostock, Germany.,Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse eV, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Axel Schulz
- Institut für Chemie, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, D-18059 Rostock, Germany.,Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse eV, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
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5
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Dettling L, Papke M, Sklorz JAW, Buzsáki D, Kelemen Z, Weber M, Nyulászi L, Müller C. A new access to diazaphospholes via cycloaddition–cycloreversion reactions on triazaphospholes. Chem Commun (Camb) 2022; 58:7745-7748. [DOI: 10.1039/d2cc02269a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The [4+2] cycloaddition of a triazaphosphole with hexafluoro-2-butyne, followed by a cycloreversion reaction under elimination of pivaloyl nitrile, affords selectively a novel bis-CF3-substituted diazaphosphole in high yield.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lea Dettling
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Fabeckstr. 34/36, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Papke
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Fabeckstr. 34/36, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Julian A. W. Sklorz
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Fabeckstr. 34/36, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - Dániel Buzsáki
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Budapest University of Technology and MTA-BME Computation Driven Chemistry Research Group, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Zsolt Kelemen
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Budapest University of Technology and MTA-BME Computation Driven Chemistry Research Group, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Manuela Weber
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Fabeckstr. 34/36, 14195, Berlin, Germany
| | - László Nyulászi
- Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, Budapest University of Technology and MTA-BME Computation Driven Chemistry Research Group, Műegyetem rkp. 3, H-1111, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Christian Müller
- Freie Universität Berlin, Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Fabeckstr. 34/36, 14195, Berlin, Germany
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Schulz A, Beer H, Linke A, Bresien J, Villinger A. A Cyclic Thioketone as Biradical Heterocyclopentane-1,3-diyl: Synthesis, Structure and Activation Chemistry. Inorg Chem Front 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d2qi00482h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The reaction of the biradical [(m-NTer)P·]2 (1) with thiophosgene, SCCl2, leads to a cyclic phospha-aza thiourea derivative (7) in very good yields. This synthetic approach represents a new possibility to...
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7
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Völzer T, Beer H, Schulz A, Lochbrunner S, Bresien J. Photoisomerization of a phosphorus-based biradicaloid: ultrafast dynamics through a conical intersection. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2021; 23:7434-7441. [PMID: 33876103 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp00428j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
As previously reported, photoisomerization of the open-shell singlet biradicaloid [TerNP]2CNDmp (2) yields its closed-shell housane-type isomer (3). In the present study, pump-probe spectroscopy was applied to investigate the excited-state dynamics of the photoisomerization, indicating ultrafast de-excitation of the S1 state through a conical intersection, in agreement with computational predictions. The structural and electronic changes during the isomerization process are discussed to gain an understanding of the reaction pathway and the transformation of the biradicaloid to a closed-shell species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Völzer
- Institute of Physics, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Str. 23-24, 18059 Rostock, Germany
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8
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Bresien J, Michalik D, Schulz A, Villinger A, Zander E. Azadiphosphaindane-1,3-diyls: A Class of Resonance-Stabilized Biradicals. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2021; 60:1507-1512. [PMID: 33038288 PMCID: PMC7839750 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202011886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2020] [Revised: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Conversion of 1,2-bis(dichlorophosphino)benzene with sterically demanding primary amines led to the formation of 1,3-dichloro-2-aza-1,3-diphosphaindanes of the type C6 H4 (μ-PCl)2 N-R. Reduction yielded the corresponding 2-aza-1,3-diphosphaindane-1,3-diyls (1), which can be described as phosphorus-centered singlet biradical(oid)s. Their stability depends on the size of the substituent R: While derivatives with R=Dmp (2,6-dimethylphenyl) or Ter (2,6-dimesitylphenyl) underwent oligomerization, the derivative with very bulky R=tBu Bhp (2,6-bis(benzhydryl)-4-tert-butylphenyl) was stable with respect to oligomerization in its monomeric form. Oligomerization involved activation of the fused benzene ring by a second equivalent of the monomeric biradical and can be regarded as formal [2+2] (poly)addition reaction. Calculations indicate that the biradical character in 1 is comparable with literature-known P-centered biradicals. Ring-current calculations show aromaticity within the entire ring system of 1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas Bresien
- Institut für ChemieUniversität RostockAlbert-Einstein-Straße 3a18059RostockGermany
| | - Dirk Michalik
- Institut für ChemieUniversität RostockAlbert-Einstein-Straße 3a18059RostockGermany
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V.Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a18059RostockGermany
| | - Axel Schulz
- Institut für ChemieUniversität RostockAlbert-Einstein-Straße 3a18059RostockGermany
- Leibniz-Institut für Katalyse e.V.Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a18059RostockGermany
| | - Alexander Villinger
- Institut für ChemieUniversität RostockAlbert-Einstein-Straße 3a18059RostockGermany
| | - Edgar Zander
- Institut für ChemieUniversität RostockAlbert-Einstein-Straße 3a18059RostockGermany
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9
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Beer H, Bresien J, Michalik D, Schulz A, Villinger A. Reversible switching between housane and cyclopentanediyl isomers: an isonitrile-catalysed thermal reverse reaction. Dalton Trans 2020; 49:13986-13992. [PMID: 32869789 DOI: 10.1039/d0dt02688c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The photo-isomerization of an isolable five-membered singlet biradical based on C, N, and P ([TerNP]2CNDmp, 2a) selectively afforded a closed-shell housane-type isomer (3a) by forming a transannular P-P bond. In the dark, the housane-type species re-isomerized to the biradical, resulting in a fully reversible overall process. In the present study, the influence of tBuNC on the thermal reverse reaction was investigated: the isonitrile acted as a catalyst, thus allowing control over the thermal reaction rate. Moreover, tBuNC also reacted with the biradical to form an adduct species ([TerNP]2CNDmp·CNtBu, 4a), which can be regarded as the resting state of the system. The reactive species 2a and 3a could be re-generated in situ by irradiation with red light. The results of this study extend our understanding of this new class of molecular switches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henrik Beer
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
| | - Jonas Bresien
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
| | - Dirk Michalik
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany. and Leibniz Institute for Catalysis, Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a, 18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Axel Schulz
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany. and Leibniz Institute for Catalysis, Albert-Einstein-Straße 29a, 18059 Rostock, Germany and Department Life, Light & Matter, University of Rostock, 18051 Rostock, Germany
| | - Alexander Villinger
- Institute of Chemistry, University of Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 3a, 18059 Rostock, Germany.
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