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Trevorah RM, Viljanen M, Viitaja T, Stubb H, Sevón J, Konovalov O, Jankowski M, Fontaine P, Hemmerle A, Raitanen JE, Ekholm FS, Svedström KJ. New Insights into the Molecular Structure of Tear Film Lipids Revealed by Surface X-ray Scattering. J Phys Chem Lett 2024; 15:316-322. [PMID: 38170161 PMCID: PMC10788950 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c02958] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 12/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
The tear film lipid layer (TFLL) is a unique biological membrane that serves a pivotal role in the maintenance of ocular surface health. Reaching an overarching understanding of the functional principle of the TFLL has been hampered by a lack of insights into the structural and functional roles played by individual lipid classes. To bridge this knowledge gap, we herein focus on studying films formed by principal lipid classes by surface scattering methods. Through grazing incidence X-ray diffraction and X-ray reflectivity studies, we reveal quantitative data about the lattice distances, molecular tilt angles, and mono/multilayer thickness and density profiles for central TFLL lipid classes under close to simulated physiological conditions. In addition, we discuss the correlation of the results to those obtained previously with the natural lipid composition of meibum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M. Trevorah
- Department
of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mira Viljanen
- Department
of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tuomo Viitaja
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Henrik Stubb
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Julia Sevón
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Oleg Konovalov
- The
European Synchrotron Radiation Facility - ESRF, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, Grenoble Cedex 9 38043, France
| | - Maciej Jankowski
- The
European Synchrotron Radiation Facility - ESRF, 71 Avenue des Martyrs, CS 40220, Grenoble Cedex 9 38043, France
| | - Philippe Fontaine
- Synchrotron
SOLEIL, L’Orme des Merisiers, Départementale 128, 91190 Saint-Aubin, France
| | - Arnaud Hemmerle
- Synchrotron
SOLEIL, L’Orme des Merisiers, Départementale 128, 91190 Saint-Aubin, France
| | - Jan-Erik Raitanen
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Filip S. Ekholm
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kirsi J. Svedström
- Department
of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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2
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Jäntti J, Viitaja T, Sevón J, Lajunen T, Raitanen JE, Schlegel C, Viljanen M, Paananen RO, Moilanen J, Ruponen M, Ekholm FS. Early-Stage Development of an Anti-Evaporative Liposomal Formulation for the Potential Treatment of Dry Eyes. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2023; 6:1518-1530. [PMID: 37854619 PMCID: PMC10580384 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.3c00147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 10/20/2023]
Abstract
Dry eye disease (DED), the most common ocular disorder, reduces the quality of life for hundreds of millions of people annually. In healthy eyes, the tear film lipid layer (TFLL) stabilizes the tear film and moderates the evaporation rate of tear fluid. In >80% of DED cases, these central features are compromised leading to tear film instability and excessive evaporation of tear fluid. Herein we assess the potential of liposomal formulations featuring phosphatidylcholines and tailored lipid species from the wax ester and O-acyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acid categories in targeting this defect. The developed lead formulation displays good evaporation-resistant properties and respreadability over compression-expansion cycles in our Langmuir model system and a promising safety and efficacy profile in vitro. Preclinical in vivo studies will in the future be required to further assess and validate the potential of this concept in the treatment of DED.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janika Jäntti
- School
of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Tuomo Viitaja
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Julia Sevón
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Tatu Lajunen
- School
of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, University of Helsinki, FI-00790 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jan-Erik Raitanen
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Cordula Schlegel
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mira Viljanen
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Riku O. Paananen
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
- Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jukka Moilanen
- Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Marika Ruponen
- School
of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, P.O. Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Filip. S. Ekholm
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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3
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Nagar S, Ajouz L, Nichols KK, Kumar S, Zhao C, Naidoo KK, Robinson MR, Borchman D. Relationship Between Human Meibum Lipid Composition and the Severity of Meibomian Gland Dysfunction: A Spectroscopic Analysis. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2023; 64:22. [PMID: 37466951 PMCID: PMC10362926 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.64.10.22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose Information on the relationship between meibum lipid composition and severity of meibomian gland dysfunction (MGD) is limited. The purpose of this study was to analyze the molecular components of meibum collected from individuals with no MGD, mild-to-moderate MGD, and severe MGD. Methods Adults with and without MGD were enrolled in a prospective, multicenter, exploratory clinical trial (ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01979887). Molar ratios of cholesteryl ester to wax ester (RCE/WE) and aldehyde to wax ester (Rald/WE) in meibum samples were measured with 1H-NMR spectroscopy. Results were evaluated for participants grouped by MGD disease status and severity (non-MGD, mild-to-moderate MGD, and severe MGD), as defined by maximum meibum quality scores, Schirmer test results, and Subject Ocular Symptom Questionnaire responses. Results Sixty-nine meibum samples from 69 individuals were included in the analysis: 24 non-MGD, 24 mild-to-moderate MGD, and 21 severe MGD. Mean RCE/WE was 0.29 in non-MGD, 0.14 in mild-to-moderate MGD (P = 0.038 vs. non-MGD, 51% lower), and 0.07 in severe MGD (P = 0.16 vs. mild-to-moderate MGD, 52% lower; P = 0.002 vs. non-MGD, 76% lower). Mean Rald/WE was 0.00022 in non-MGD, 0.00083 in mild-to-moderate MGD (P = 0.07 vs. non-MGD, 277% higher), and 0.0024 in severe MGD (P = 0.003 vs. mild-to-moderate MGD, 190% higher; P < 0.001 vs. non-MGD, 992% higher). Conclusions RCE/WE was lowest and Rald/WE was highest in the severe MGD cohort, suggesting that these meibum constituent molar ratios may result from the pathophysiology associated with MGD and can impact ocular surface lipid and tear film homeostasis. These findings may potentially help identify targets for MGD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saumya Nagar
- Allergan, an AbbVie company, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Layla Ajouz
- Allergan, an AbbVie company, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Kelly K Nichols
- School of Optometry, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL, United States
| | - Sandeep Kumar
- Allergan, an AbbVie company, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Cathy Zhao
- Allergan, an AbbVie company, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Kugen K Naidoo
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, United States
| | | | - Douglas Borchman
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY, United States
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4
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Viitaja T, Raitanen JE, Moilanen J, Paananen RO, Ekholm FS. Biophysical profiling of synthetic ultra-long tear film lipids. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2023; 223:113145. [PMID: 36701899 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2023.113145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
The tear film lipid layer (TFLL) is a unique biological membrane of importance to the maintenance of ocular surface health. The underlying factors at play, e.g. the ability to retard evaporation and offer protection from the environment, are all closely connected to the properties of individual lipid components and their interplay. The TFLL contains unique ultra-long polar lipid species such as O-acyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acids, type I-St diesters and type II diesters, which are considered important for its proper function. Herein, we have synthesized model compounds from these categories and studied their biophysical and surface rheological properties at the aqueous interface. Altogether, we provide insights on the distinct biophysical profiles of these lipid classes and discuss how their interplay may affect the structure and function of the TFLL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuomo Viitaja
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland; Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jan-Erik Raitanen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jukka Moilanen
- Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Riku O Paananen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland; Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Filip S Ekholm
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
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Magny R, Regazzetti A, Kessal K, Christin O, Baudouin C, Roulland E, Brignole-Baudouin F, Laprévote O, Auzeil N. Identification of new Omega-3 very long chain poly-unsaturated fatty acids in meibomian gland secretions. Biochimie 2022; 203:3-10. [PMID: 35476941 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2022.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Three new very long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (VLC PUFA) belonging to the omega-3 family have been identified in meibum samples collected by Schirmer strips. These VLC PUFA, namely FA (32:3), FA (34:3) and FA (36:3), were detected in O-acyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acids using a molecular network approach, and as free fatty acids. Identification was supported by retention time prediction model, exact mass determination and isotopic patterns. Double bond location was determined using cross metathesis reaction associated to tandem mass spectrometry. In meibum, synthesis of these VLC PUFA is likely to be mediated by elongation of very long chain fatty acids 4 enzyme. The biological role of these newly VLC PUFA and their occurrence in other tissues and biological fluids remains to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romain Magny
- Sorbonne Université UM80, INSERM UMR 968, CNRS UMR 7210, Institut de la Vision, IHU ForeSight, 75012, Paris, France; Université Paris Cité, CNRS, CiTCoM, F-75006, Paris, France.
| | | | - Karima Kessal
- Sorbonne Université UM80, INSERM UMR 968, CNRS UMR 7210, Institut de la Vision, IHU ForeSight, 75012, Paris, France; CIC 1423, Centre Hospitalier National d'Ophtalmologie des Quinze-Vingts, IHU ForeSight, 75012, Paris, France
| | - Orane Christin
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, CiTCoM, F-75006, Paris, France
| | - Christophe Baudouin
- Sorbonne Université UM80, INSERM UMR 968, CNRS UMR 7210, Institut de la Vision, IHU ForeSight, 75012, Paris, France; CIC 1423, Centre Hospitalier National d'Ophtalmologie des Quinze-Vingts, IHU ForeSight, 75012, Paris, France; Hôpital Ambroise Paré, AP-HP, Université Versailles St Quentin en Yvelines, Paris Saclay, 78180, Montigny-Le-Bretonneux, France
| | | | - Françoise Brignole-Baudouin
- Sorbonne Université UM80, INSERM UMR 968, CNRS UMR 7210, Institut de la Vision, IHU ForeSight, 75012, Paris, France; Université Paris Cité, CNRS, CiTCoM, F-75006, Paris, France; Laboratoire d'ophtalmobiologie, Centre Hospitalier National d'Ophtalmologie des Quinze-Vingts, IHU ForeSight, 75012, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Laprévote
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, CiTCoM, F-75006, Paris, France; Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, AP-HP, Service de Biochimie, 75015, Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Auzeil
- Université Paris Cité, CNRS, CiTCoM, F-75006, Paris, France.
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6
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Viitaja T, Raitanen JE, Hynynen A, Moilanen J, Svedström K, Paananen RO, Ekholm FS. On the importance of chain branching in tear film lipid layer wax and cholesteryl esters. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2022; 214:112429. [PMID: 35278859 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2022.112429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The tear film lipid layer (TFLL) is important to the maintenance of ocular surface health. Surprisingly, information on the individual roles of the myriad of unique lipids found therein is limited. The most abundant lipid species are the wax esters (WE) and cholesteryl esters (CE), and, especially their branched analogs. The isolation of these lipid species from the TFLL has proved to be tedious, and as a result, insights on their biophysical profiles and role in the TFLL is currently lacking. Herein, we circumvent these issues by a total synthesis of the most abundant iso-methyl branched WEs and CEs found in the TFLL. Through a detailed characterization of the biophysical properties, by the use of Langmuir monolayer and wide-angle X-ray scattering techniques, we demonstrate that chain branching alters the behavior of these lipid species on multiple levels. Taken together, our results fill an important knowledge gap concerning the structure and function of the TFLL on the whole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuomo Viitaja
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland; Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, Helsinki FI-00290, Finland
| | - Jan-Erik Raitanen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Antti Hynynen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Jukka Moilanen
- Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, Helsinki FI-00290, Finland
| | - Kirsi Svedström
- Department of Physics, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 64, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland
| | - Riku O Paananen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland; Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, Helsinki FI-00290, Finland.
| | - Filip S Ekholm
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, Helsinki FI-00014, Finland.
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7
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Biophysical properties of tear film lipid layer II. Polymorphism of FAHFA. Biophys J 2022; 121:451-458. [PMID: 34968427 PMCID: PMC8822609 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.12.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2021] [Revised: 12/04/2021] [Accepted: 12/22/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Fatty acid esters of hydroxy fatty acids (FAHFAs) are a newly discovered class of endogenous lipids that consist of two acyl chains connected through a single ester bond. Being a unique species of FAHFAs, (O-acyl)-ω-hydroxy fatty acids (OAHFAs) differ from other FAHFAs in that their hydroxy fatty acid backbones are ultralong and their hydroxy esterification is believed to be solely at the terminal (ω-) position. Only in recent years with technological advances in lipidomics have OAHFAs been identified as an important component of the tear film lipid layer (TFLL). It was found that OAHFAs account for approximately 4 mol% of the total lipids and 20 mol% of the polar lipids in the TFLL. However, their biophysical function and contribution to the TFLL is still poorly understood. Here we studied the molecular biophysical mechanisms of OAHFAs using palmitic-acid-9-hydroxy-stearic-acid (PAHSA) as a model. PAHSA and OAHFAs share key structural similarities that could result in comparable biophysical properties and molecular mechanisms. With combined biophysical experiments, atomic force microscopy observations, and all-atom molecular dynamics simulations, we found that the biophysical properties of a dynamic PAHSA monolayer under physiologically relevant conditions depend on a balance between kinetics and thermal relaxation. PAHSA molecules at the air-water surface demonstrate unique polymorphic behaviors, which can be explained by configurational transitions of the molecules under various lateral pressures. These findings could have novel implications in understanding biophysical functions that FAHFAs, in general, or OAHFAs, specifically, play in the TFLL.
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8
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Viitaja T, Moilanen J, Svedström KJ, Ekholm FS, Paananen RO. Tear Film Lipid Layer Structure: Self-Assembly of O-Acyl-ω-hydroxy Fatty Acids and Wax Esters into Evaporation-Resistant Monolayers. NANO LETTERS 2021; 21:7676-7683. [PMID: 34468151 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c02475] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
In healthy eyes, the tear film lipid layer (TFLL) is considered to act as an evaporation resistant barrier, which prevents eyes from drying. Seeking to understand the mechanisms behind the evaporation resistance of the TFLL, we studied mixtures of lipid layer wax esters and O-acyl-ω-hydroxy fatty acids. Analyzing their self-assembly and biophysical properties led to new discoveries concerning the structure and function of the TFLL. We discovered how these lipids self-assemble at the air-water interface and form an efficient antievaporative barrier, demonstrating for the first time how the interaction of different tear film lipid species can improve the evaporation resistance compared with individual lipid classes on their own. These results provide a potential mechanism for the evaporation resistance of the lipid layer. In addition, the results serve as a base for the future development of improved dry eye treatments and other applications where the evaporation of water represents a significant challenge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuomo Viitaja
- Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jukka Moilanen
- Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
| | | | - Filip S Ekholm
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Riku O Paananen
- Ophthalmology, University of Helsinki and Helsinki University Hospital, Haartmaninkatu 8, FI-00290 Helsinki, Finland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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9
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Sokka IK, Imlimthan S, Sarparanta M, Maaheimo H, Johansson MP, Ekholm FS. Halogenation at the Phenylalanine Residue of Monomethyl Auristatin F Leads to a Favorable cis/ trans Equilibrium and Retained Cytotoxicity. Mol Pharm 2021; 18:3125-3131. [PMID: 34296616 PMCID: PMC8397390 DOI: 10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.1c00342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2021] [Revised: 07/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Halogenation can be utilized for the purposes of labeling and molecular imaging, providing a means to, e.g., follow drug distribution in an organism through positron emission tomography (PET) or study the molecular recognition events unfolding by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. For cancer therapeutics, where often highly toxic substances are employed, it is of importance to be able to track the distribution of the drugs and their metabolites in order to ensure minimal side effects. Labeling should ideally have a negligible disruptive effect on the efficacy of a given drug. Using a combination of NMR spectroscopy and cytotoxicity assays, we identify a site susceptible to halogenation in monomethyl auristatin F (MMAF), a widely used cytotoxic agent in the antibody-drug conjugate (ADC) family of cancer drugs, and study the effects of fluorination and chlorination on the physiological solution structure of the auristatins and their cytotoxicity. We find that the cytotoxicity of the parent drug is retained, while the conformational equilibrium is shifted significantly toward the biologically active trans isomer, simultaneously decreasing the concentration of the inactive and potentially disruptive cis isomer by up to 50%. Our results may serve as a base for the future assembly of a multifunctional toolkit for the assessment of linker technologies and exploring bystander effects from the warhead perspective in auristatin-derived ADCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iris K. Sokka
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, A. I. Virtasen aukio
1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Surachet Imlimthan
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, A. I. Virtasen aukio
1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Mirkka Sarparanta
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, A. I. Virtasen aukio
1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Hannu Maaheimo
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd, P.O. Box 1000, VTT, FI-02044 Espoo, Finland
| | - Mikael P. Johansson
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, A. I. Virtasen aukio
1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
- CSC,
IT Center for Science Ltd., P.O. Box
405, FI-02101 Espoo, Finland
| | - Filip S. Ekholm
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Helsinki, P.O. Box 55, A. I. Virtasen aukio
1, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland
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