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Diamanti E, López-Gallego F. Single-Particle and Single-Molecule Characterization of Immobilized Enzymes: A Multiscale Path toward Optimizing Heterogeneous Biocatalysts. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2024; 63:e202319248. [PMID: 38476019 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202319248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Heterogeneous biocatalysis is highly relevant in biotechnology as it offers several benefits and practical uses. To leverage the full potential of heterogeneous biocatalysts, the establishment of well-crafted protocols, and a deeper comprehension of enzyme immobilization on solid substrates are essential. These endeavors seek to optimize immobilized biocatalysts, ensuring maximal enzyme performance within confined spaces. For this aim, multidimensional characterization of heterogeneous biocatalysts is required. In this context, spectroscopic and microscopic methodologies conducted at different space and temporal scales can inform about the intraparticle enzyme kinetics, the enzyme spatial distribution, and the mass transport issues. In this Minireview, we identify enzyme immobilization, enzyme catalysis, and enzyme inactivation as the three main processes for which advanced characterization tools unveil fundamental information. Recent advances in operando characterization of immobilized enzymes at the single-particle (SP) and single-molecule (SM) levels inform about their functional properties, unlocking the full potential of heterogeneous biocatalysis toward biotechnological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleftheria Diamanti
- Center for Cooperative Research in Biomaterials (CIC biomaGUNE)-, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón, 194, 20014, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
| | - Fernando López-Gallego
- Center for Cooperative Research in Biomaterials (CIC biomaGUNE)-, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón, 194, 20014, Donostia-San Sebastián, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Maria Diaz de Haro 3, 48013, Bilbao, Spain
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2
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Wei H, Smith JP. Modernized Machine Learning Approach to Illuminate Enzyme Immobilization for Biocatalysis. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2023; 9:1913-1926. [PMID: 37901174 PMCID: PMC10604017 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.3c00757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Indexed: 10/31/2023]
Abstract
Biocatalysis is an established technology with significant application in the pharmaceutical industry. Immobilization of enzymes offers significant benefits for commercial and practical purposes to enhance the stability and recyclability of biocatalysts. Determination of the spatial and chemical distributions of immobilized enzymes on solid support materials is essential for an optimal catalytic performance. However, current analytical methodologies often fall short of rapidly identifying and characterizing immobilized enzyme systems. Herein, we present a new analytical methodology that combines non-negative matrix factorization (NMF)-an unsupervised machine learning tool-with Raman hyperspectral imaging to simultaneously resolve the spatial and spectral characteristics of all individual species involved in enzyme immobilization. Our novel approach facilitates the determination of the optimal NMF model using new data-driven, quantitative selection criteria that fully resolve all chemical species present, offering a robust methodology for analyzing immobilized enzymes. Specifically, we demonstrate the ability of NMF with Raman hyperspectral imaging to resolve the spatial and spectral profiles of an engineered pantothenate kinase immobilized on two different commercial microporous resins. Our results demonstrate that this approach can accurately identify and spatially resolve all species within this enzyme immobilization process. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of NMF within hyperspectral imaging for enzyme immobilization analysis, and as such, our methodology can now provide a new powerful tool to streamline biocatalytic process development within the pharmaceutical industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Wei
- Process Research & Development,
MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
| | - Joseph P. Smith
- Process Research & Development,
MRL, Merck & Co., Inc., West Point, Pennsylvania 19486, United States
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3
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Santiago-Arcos J, Velasco-Lozano S, López-Gallego F. Multienzyme Coimmobilization on Triheterofunctional Supports. Biomacromolecules 2023; 24:929-942. [PMID: 36649203 PMCID: PMC10018741 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biomac.2c01364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Immobilized multienzyme systems are gaining momentum in applied biocatalysis; however, the coimmobilization of several enzymes on one carrier is still challenging. In this work, we exploited a heterofunctional support activated with three different chemical functionalities to immobilize a wide variety of different enzymes. This support is based on agarose microbeads activated with aldehyde, amino, and cobalt chelate moieties that allow a fast and irreversible immobilization of enzymes, enhancing the thermostability of most of the heterogeneous biocatalysts (up to 21-fold higher than the soluble one). Furthermore, this trifunctional support serves to efficiently coimmobilize a multienzyme system composed of an alcohol dehydrogenase, a reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) oxidase, and a catalase. The confined multienzymatic system demonstrates higher performance than its free counterpart, achieving a total turnover number (TTN) of 1 × 105 during five batch consecutive cycles. We envision this solid material as a platform for coimmobilizing multienzyme systems with enhanced properties to catalyze stepwise biotransformations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Santiago-Arcos
- Heterogeneous Biocatalysis Laboratory, CIC biomaGUNE, Edificio Empresarial "C", Paseo de Miramón 182, 20009 Donostia, Spain
| | - Susana Velasco-Lozano
- Heterogeneous Biocatalysis Laboratory, CIC biomaGUNE, Edificio Empresarial "C", Paseo de Miramón 182, 20009 Donostia, Spain.,Instituto de Síntesis Química y Catálisis Homogénea (ISQCH-CSIC), Universidad de Zaragoza, C/ Pedro Cerbuna, 12, 50009 Zaragoza, Spain.,Aragonese Foundation for Research and Development (ARAID), 50018 Zaragoza, Spain
| | - Fernando López-Gallego
- Heterogeneous Biocatalysis Laboratory, CIC biomaGUNE, Edificio Empresarial "C", Paseo de Miramón 182, 20009 Donostia, Spain.,IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48009 Bilbao, Spain
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Immobilization of Alcalase on Silica Supports Modified with Carbosilane and PAMAM Dendrimers. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232416102. [PMID: 36555742 PMCID: PMC9783553 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232416102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzyme immobilization is a powerful strategy for enzyme stabilization and recyclability. Materials covered with multipoint molecules are very attractive for this goal, since the number of active moieties to attach the enzyme increases with respect to monofunctional linkers. This work evaluates different dendrimers supported on silica to immobilize a protease enzyme, Alcalase. Five different dendrimers were employed: two carbosilane (CBS) dendrimers of different generations (SiO2-G0Si-NH2 and SiO2-G1Si-NH2), a CBS dendrimer with a polyphenoxo core (SiO2-G1O3-NH2), and two commercial polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers of different generations (SiO2-G0PAMAM-NH2 and SiO2-G1PAMAM-NH2). The results were compared with a silica support modified with a monofunctional molecule (2-aminoethanethiol). The effect of the dendrimer generation, the immobilization conditions (immobilization time, Alcalase/SiO2 ratio, and presence of Ca2+ ions), and the digestion conditions (temperature, time, amount of support, and stirring speed) on Alcalase activity has been evaluated. Enzyme immobilization and its activity were highly affected by the kind of dendrimer and its generation, observing the most favorable behavior with SiO2-G0PAMAM-NH2. The enzyme immobilized on this support was used in two consecutive digestions and, unlike CBS supports, it did not retain peptides released in the digestion.
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Bolivar JM, Nidetzky B. On the relationship between structure and catalytic effectiveness in solid surface-immobilized enzymes: Advances in methodology and the quest for a single-molecule perspective. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2019; 1868:140333. [PMID: 31778816 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2019.140333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2019] [Revised: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 11/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The integration of enzymes with solid materials is important in many biotechnological applications, including the use of immobilized enzymes for biocatalytic synthesis. The development of functional enzyme-material composites is restrained by the lack of molecular-level insight into the behavior of enzymes in confined, surface-near environments. Here, we review recent advances in surface-sensitive spectroscopic techniques that push boundaries for the determination of enzyme structure and orientation at the solid-liquid interface. We discuss recent evidence from single-molecule studies showing that analyses sensitive to the temporal and spatial heterogeneities in immobilized enzymes can succeed in disentangling the effects of conformational stability and active-site accessibility on activity. Different immobilization methods involve distinct trade-off between these effects, thus emphasizing the need for a holistic (systems) view of immobilized enzymes for the rational development of practical biocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan M Bolivar
- Institute of Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering, Graz University of Technology, NAWI Graz, Petersgasse 12, A-8010 Graz, Austria; Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Petersgasse 12, A-8010 Graz, Austria; Chemical and Materials Engineering Department, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Bernd Nidetzky
- Institute of Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering, Graz University of Technology, NAWI Graz, Petersgasse 12, A-8010 Graz, Austria; Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Petersgasse 12, A-8010 Graz, Austria.
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6
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Vinegoni C, Feruglio PF, Gryczynski I, Mazitschek R, Weissleder R. Fluorescence anisotropy imaging in drug discovery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2019; 151-152:262-288. [PMID: 29410158 PMCID: PMC6072632 DOI: 10.1016/j.addr.2018.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2017] [Revised: 01/29/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Non-invasive measurement of drug-target engagement can provide critical insights in the molecular pharmacology of small molecule drugs. Fluorescence polarization/fluorescence anisotropy measurements are commonly employed in protein/cell screening assays. However, the expansion of such measurements to the in vivo setting has proven difficult until recently. With the advent of high-resolution fluorescence anisotropy microscopy it is now possible to perform kinetic measurements of intracellular drug distribution and target engagement in commonly used mouse models. In this review we discuss the background, current advances and future perspectives in intravital fluorescence anisotropy measurements to derive pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic measurements in single cells and whole organs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Vinegoni
- Center for System Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Paolo Fumene Feruglio
- Center for System Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Neurological, Biomedical and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Ignacy Gryczynski
- University of North Texas Health Science Center, Institute for Molecular Medicine, Fort Worth, TX, United States
| | - Ralph Mazitschek
- Center for System Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Ralph Weissleder
- Center for System Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
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On-pot and cell-free biocatalysis using coimmobilized enzymes on advanced materials. Methods Enzymol 2019; 617:385-411. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2018.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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8
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Stabilization of Enzymes by Multipoint Covalent Attachment on Aldehyde-Supports: 2-Picoline Borane as an Alternative Reducing Agent. Catalysts 2018. [DOI: 10.3390/catal8080333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Enzyme immobilization by multipoint covalent attachment on supports activated with aliphatic aldehyde groups (e.g., glyoxyl agarose) has proven to be an excellent immobilization technique for enzyme stabilization. Borohydride reduction of immobilized enzymes is necessary to convert enzyme–support linkages into stable secondary amino groups and to convert the remaining aldehyde groups on the support into hydroxy groups. However, the use of borohydride can adversely affect the structure–activity of some immobilized enzymes. For this reason, 2-picoline borane is proposed here as an alternative milder reducing agent, especially, for those enzymes sensitive to borohydride reduction. The immobilization-stabilization parameters of five enzymes from different sources and nature (from monomeric to multimeric enzymes) were compared with those obtained by conventional methodology. The most interesting results were obtained for bacterial (R)-mandelate dehydrogenase (ManDH). Immobilized ManDH reduced with borohydride almost completely lost its catalytic activity (1.5% of expressed activity). In contrast, using 2-picoline borane and blocking the remaining aldehyde groups on the support with glycine allowed for a conjugate with a significant activity of 19.5%. This improved biocatalyst was 357-fold more stable than the soluble enzyme at 50 °C and pH 7. The results show that this alternative methodology can lead to more stable and active biocatalysts.
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9
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Masters TA, Robinson NA, Marsh RJ, Blacker TS, Armoogum DA, Larijani B, Bain AJ. Time-resolved stimulated emission depletion and energy transfer dynamics in two-photon excited EGFP. J Chem Phys 2018; 148:134312. [DOI: 10.1063/1.5011643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- T. A. Masters
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
- CoMPLEX, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - N. A. Robinson
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - R. J. Marsh
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - T. S. Blacker
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
- CoMPLEX, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - D. A. Armoogum
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
| | - B. Larijani
- Cell Biophysics Laboratory, Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science and Unidad de Biofisica (CSIC-UPV/EHU), Bilbao, Spain
| | - A. J. Bain
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
- CoMPLEX, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, United Kingdom
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Benítez-Mateos AI, Nidetzky B, Bolivar JM, López-Gallego F. Single-Particle Studies to Advance the Characterization of Heterogeneous Biocatalysts. ChemCatChem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201701590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ana I. Benítez-Mateos
- Heterogeneous Biocatalysis Group; CIC BiomaGUNE; Paseo Miramon 182 San Sebastian-Donostia 20014 Spain
| | - Bernd Nidetzky
- Institute of Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering; Graz University of Technology, NAWI Graz; Petersgasse 12 8010 Graz Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology; Petersgasse 14 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Juan M. Bolivar
- Institute of Biotechnology and Biochemical Engineering; Graz University of Technology, NAWI Graz; Petersgasse 12 8010 Graz Austria
| | - Fernando López-Gallego
- Heterogeneous Biocatalysis Group; CIC BiomaGUNE; Paseo Miramon 182 San Sebastian-Donostia 20014 Spain
- IKERBASQUE; Basque Foundation for Science; Bilbao Spain
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11
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da Silva ES, Gómez-Vallejo V, Llop J, López-Gallego F. Structural, kinetic and operational characterization of an immobilized l -aminoacid dehydrogenase. Process Biochem 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2017.03.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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12
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A spectroscopic study on the absorption of carbonic anhydrase onto the nanoporous silica nanoparticle. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 99:739-745. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Revised: 03/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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13
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Zucca P, Fernandez-Lafuente R, Sanjust E. Agarose and Its Derivatives as Supports for Enzyme Immobilization. Molecules 2016; 21:E1577. [PMID: 27869778 PMCID: PMC6273708 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21111577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2016] [Revised: 11/12/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Agarose is a polysaccharide obtained from some seaweeds, with a quite particular structure that allows spontaneous gelation. Agarose-based beads are highly porous, mechanically resistant, chemically and physically inert, and sharply hydrophilic. These features-that could be further improved by means of covalent cross-linking-render them particularly suitable for enzyme immobilization with a wide range of derivatization methods taking advantage of chemical modification of a fraction of the polymer hydroxyls. The main properties of the polymer are described here, followed by a review of cross-linking and derivatization methods. Some recent, innovative procedures to optimize the catalytic activity and operational stability of the obtained preparations are also described, together with multi-enzyme immobilized systems and the main guidelines to exploit their performances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paolo Zucca
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato (CA), Italy.
| | | | - Enrico Sanjust
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biomediche, Università di Cagliari, 09042 Monserrato (CA), Italy.
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Acebrón I, Ruiz-Estrada AG, Luengo Y, Morales MDP, Guisán JM, Mancheño JM. Oriented Attachment of Recombinant Proteins to Agarose-Coated Magnetic Nanoparticles by Means of a β-Trefoil Lectin Domain. Bioconjug Chem 2016; 27:2734-2743. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.bioconjchem.6b00504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Iván Acebrón
- Departamento
de Cristalografía y Biología Estructural, Instituto
Rocasolano, CSIC, Serrano 119, 28006 Madrid, Spain
| | - Amalia G. Ruiz-Estrada
- Departamento
de Biomateriales y Materiales Bioinspirados, Instituto de Ciencia
de Materiales de Madrid, CSIC, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz,
3, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - Yurena Luengo
- Departamento
de Biomateriales y Materiales Bioinspirados, Instituto de Ciencia
de Materiales de Madrid, CSIC, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz,
3, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - María del Puerto Morales
- Departamento
de Biomateriales y Materiales Bioinspirados, Instituto de Ciencia
de Materiales de Madrid, CSIC, Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz,
3, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - José Manuel Guisán
- Departamento
de Biocatálisis, Instituto de Catálisis, CSIC, Campus UAM, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
| | - José Miguel Mancheño
- Departamento
de Cristalografía y Biología Estructural, Instituto
Rocasolano, CSIC, Serrano 119, 28006 Madrid, Spain
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Gregurec D, Velasco-Lozano S, Moya SE, Vázquez L, López-Gallego F. Force spectroscopy predicts thermal stability of immobilized proteins by measuring microbead mechanics. SOFT MATTER 2016; 12:8718-8725. [PMID: 27714304 DOI: 10.1039/c6sm01435f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Optimal immobilization of enzymes on porous microbeads enables the fabrication of highly active and stable heterogeneous biocatalysts to implement biocatalysis in synthetic and analytical chemistry. However, empirical procedures for enzyme immobilization still prevail over rational ones because there is an unmet need for more comprehensive characterization techniques that aid to understand and trace the immobilization process. Here, we present the use of atomic force spectroscopy (AFS) as an innovative solution to indirectly characterize immobilized proteins on porous materials and monitor the immobilization process in real time. We investigate the mechanical properties of porous agarose microbeads immobilizing proteins by indenting a colloidal probe (silica microparticle) into a single bead. AFS demonstrates that the binding of proteins to the solid matrix of an agarose microbead alters its stiffness. Interestingly, we discovered that irreversible and multivalent immobilizations that make microbeads stiffer also stabilize the immobilized proteins against the temperature. Hence, we propose atomic force spectroscopy as a useful technique to indirectly unravel the stability of the immobilized enzymes investigating the mechanics of the heterogenous biocatalysts as a solid biomaterial beyond the intrinsic mechanics of the proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danijela Gregurec
- Soft Matter Nanotechnology Group, CIC BiomaGUNE, Paseo Miramon 182, San Sebasitan-Donostia, 20009, Spain and RLE-Bioelectronics Research Group, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Ave 8-031, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
| | - Susana Velasco-Lozano
- Heterogeneus Biocatalysis Group, CIC BiomaGUNE, Paseo Miramon 182, San Sebasitan-Donostia, 20009, Spain.
| | - Sergio E Moya
- Soft Matter Nanotechnology Group, CIC BiomaGUNE, Paseo Miramon 182, San Sebasitan-Donostia, 20009, Spain
| | - Luis Vázquez
- Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Madrid (CSIC), Campus de Cantoblanco, C\Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz 3, Madrid, 28049, Spain
| | - Fernando López-Gallego
- Heterogeneus Biocatalysis Group, CIC BiomaGUNE, Paseo Miramon 182, San Sebasitan-Donostia, 20009, Spain. and IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
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