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Marcelino T, Docampo MAR, Qian X, Ade C, Brodszkij E, Ceccato M, Foss M, Dulchavsky M, Bardwell JCA, Städler B. Surfaces Coated with Polymer Brushes Work as Carriers for Histidine Ammonia Lyase. Macromol Biosci 2023; 23:e2200528. [PMID: 36971346 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202200528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
The immobilization of enzymes on solid supports is an important challenge in biotechnology and biomedicine. In contrast to other methods, enzyme deposition in polymer brushes offers the benefit of high protein loading that preserves enzymatic activity in part due to the hydrated 3D environment that is available within the brush structure. The authors equipped planar and colloidal silica surfaces with poly(2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate)-based brushes to immobilize Thermoplasma acidophilum histidine ammonia lyase, and analyzed the amount and activity of the immobilized enzyme. The poly(2-(diethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) brushes are attached to the solid silica supports either via a "grafting-to" or a "grafting-from" method. It is found that the grafting-from method results in higher amounts of deposited polymer and, consequently, higher amounts of Thermoplasma acidophilum histidine ammonia lyase. All polymer brush-modified surfaces show preserved catalytic activity of the deposited Thermoplasma acidophilum histidine ammonia lyase. However, immobilizing the enzyme in polymer brushes using the grafting-from method resulted in twice the enzymatic activity from the grafting-to approach, illustrating a successful enzyme deposition on a solid support.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thaís Marcelino
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus, 8000, Denmark
- Sino-Danish College (SDC), University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101408, P. R. China
| | - Miguel A Ramos Docampo
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus, 8000, Denmark
| | - Xiaomin Qian
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus, 8000, Denmark
| | - Carina Ade
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus, 8000, Denmark
| | - Edit Brodszkij
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus, 8000, Denmark
| | - Marcel Ceccato
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus, 8000, Denmark
- Sino-Danish College (SDC), University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101408, P. R. China
| | - Morten Foss
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus, 8000, Denmark
- Sino-Danish College (SDC), University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 101408, P. R. China
| | - Mark Dulchavsky
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Michigan, University Avenue 1105 N., Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - James C A Bardwell
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Michigan, University Avenue 1105 N., Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - Brigitte Städler
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Aarhus University, Gustav Wieds Vej 14, Aarhus, 8000, Denmark
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2
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Wang Z, Fu L, Liu D, Tang D, Liu K, Rao L, Yang J, Liu Y, Li Y, Chen H, Yang X. Controllable Preparation and Research Progress of Photosensitive Antibacterial Complex Hydrogels. Gels 2023; 9:571. [PMID: 37504450 PMCID: PMC10379193 DOI: 10.3390/gels9070571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/10/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrogels are materials consisting of a network of hydrophilic polymers. Due to their good biocompatibility and hydrophilicity, they are widely used in biomedicine, food safety, environmental protection, agriculture, and other fields. This paper summarizes the typical complex materials of photocatalysts, photosensitizers, and hydrogels, as week as their antibacterial activities and the basic mechanisms of photothermal and photodynamic effects. In addition, the application of hydrogel-based photoresponsive materials in microbial inactivation is discussed, including the challenges faced in their application. The advantages of photosensitive antibacterial complex hydrogels are highlighted, and their application and research progress in various fields are introduced in detail.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun Wang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
| | - Lili Fu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
| | - Dongliang Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
| | - Dongxu Tang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
| | - Kun Liu
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
| | - Lu Rao
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
| | - Jinyu Yang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
- Key Laboratory of Coal Conversion and New Carbon Materials of Hubei Province, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Wuhan University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430081, China
| | - Yi Liu
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
| | - Yuesheng Li
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
| | - Huangqin Chen
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
| | - Xiaojie Yang
- Hubei Key Laboratory of Radiation Chemistry and Functional Materials, School of Nuclear Technology and Chemistry and Biology, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xianning 437100, China
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van Rijt S, de Groot K, Leeuwenburgh SCG. Calcium phosphate and silicate-based nanoparticles: history and emerging trends. Tissue Eng Part A 2022; 28:461-477. [PMID: 35107351 DOI: 10.1089/ten.tea.2021.0218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Bulk calcium phosphates and silicate-based bioglasses have been extensively studied since the early 1970s due to their unique capacity to bind to host bone, which led to their clinical translation and commercialization in the 1980s. Since the mid-1990s, researchers have synthesized nanoscale calcium phosphate and silicate-based particles of increased specific surface area, chemical reactivity and solubility which offer specific advantages as compared to their bulk counterparts. This review provides a critical perspective on the history and emerging trends of these two classes of ceramic nanoparticles. Their synthesis and functional properties in terms of particle composition, size, shape, charge, dispersion, and toxicity are discussed as a function of relevant processing parameters. Specifically, emerging trends such as the influence of ion doping and mesoporosity on the biological and pharmaceutical performance of these nanoparticles are reviewed in more detail. Finally, a broad comparative overview is provided on the physicochemical properties and applicability of calcium phosphate and silicate-based nanoparticles within the fields of i) local delivery of therapeutic agents, ii) functionalization of biomaterial scaffolds or implant coatings, and iii) bio-imaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine van Rijt
- Maastricht University, 5211, MERLN Institute-Instructive Biomaterial Engineering, Maastricht, Limburg, Netherlands;
| | - Klaas de Groot
- Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1190, Academic Center for Dentistry Amsterdam (ACTA)-Department of Oral Implantology and Prosthetic Dentistry, Amsterdam, Noord-Holland, Netherlands;
| | - Sander C G Leeuwenburgh
- Radboudumc, 6034, Dept. of Dentistry-Regenerative Biomaterials, Nijmegen, Gelderland, Netherlands;
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Zengin A, Castro JPO, Habibovic P, van Rijt SH. Injectable, self-healing mesoporous silica nanocomposite hydrogels with improved mechanical properties. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:1144-1154. [PMID: 33400753 PMCID: PMC8100892 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr07406c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Self-healing hydrogels have emerged as promising biomaterials in regenerative medicine applications. However, an ongoing challenge is to create hydrogels that combine rapid self-healing with high mechanical strength to make them applicable to a wider range of organs/tissues. Incorporating nanoparticles within hydrogels is a popular strategy to improve the mechanical properties as well as to provide additional functionalities such as stimuli responsiveness or controlled drug delivery, further optimizing their use. In this context, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) are promising candidates as they are bioactive, improve mechanical properties, and can controllably release various types of cargo. While commonly nanoparticles are added to hydrogels as filler component, in the current study we developed thiol surface-functionalized MSNs capable of acting as chemical crosslinkers with a known hydrophilic polymer, polyethylene glycol (PEG), through dynamic thiol-disulfide covalent interactions. Due to these dynamic exchange reactions, mechanically strong nanocomposites with a storage modulus of up to 32 ± 5 kPa compared to 1.3 ± 0.3 kPa for PEG hydrogels alone, with rapid self-healing capabilities, could be formed. When non-surface modified MSNs were used, the increase in storage modulus of the hydrogels was significantly lower (3.4 ± 0.7 kPa). In addition, the nanocomposites were shown to degrade slowly over 6 weeks upon exposure to glutathione while remaining intact at physiological conditions. Together, the data argue that creating nanocomposites using MSNs as dynamic crosslinkers is a promising strategy to confer mechanical strength and rapid self-healing capabilities to hydrogels. This approach offers new possibilities for creating multifunctional self-healing biomaterials for a wider range of applications in regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Zengin
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering (IBE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
| | - J P O Castro
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering (IBE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
| | - P Habibovic
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering (IBE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
| | - S H van Rijt
- Department of Instructive Biomaterials Engineering (IBE), MERLN Institute for Technology-Inspired Regenerative Medicine, Maastricht University, the Netherlands.
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5
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Kent EW, Lewoczko EM, Zhao B. pH- and chaotropic anion-induced conformational changes of tertiary amine-containing binary heterografted star molecular bottlebrushes in aqueous solution. Polym Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0py01466d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Three-arm star-shaped, tertiary-amine-containing bottlebrushes exhibit star-globule shape transitions in response to pH changes and addition of sufficiently strong chaotropic anions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ethan W. Kent
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Tennessee
- Knoxville
- USA
| | | | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Tennessee
- Knoxville
- USA
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6
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Mei S, Wilk JT, Chancellor AJ, Zhao B, Li CY. Fabrication of 2D Block Copolymer Brushes via a Polymer-Single-Crystal-Assisted-Grafting-to Method. Macromol Rapid Commun 2020; 41:e2000228. [PMID: 32608541 DOI: 10.1002/marc.202000228] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 05/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Block copolymer brushes are of great interest due to their rich phase behavior and value-added properties compared to homopolymer brushes. Traditional synthesis involves grafting-to and grafting-from methods. In this work, a recently developed "polymer-single-crystal-assisted-grafting-to" method is applied for the preparation of block copolymer brushes on flat glass surfaces. Triblock copolymer poly(ethylene oxide)-b-poly(l-lactide)-b-poly(3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl methacrylate) (PEO-b-PLLA-b-PTESPMA) is synthesized with PLLA as the brush morphology-directing component and PTESPMA as the anchoring block. PEO-b-PLLA block copolymer brushes are obtained by chemical grafting of the triblock copolymer single crystals onto a glass surface. The tethering point and overall brush pattern are determined by the single crystal morphology. The grafting density is calculated to be ≈0.36 nm-2 from the atomic force microscopy results and is consistent with the theoretic calculation based on the PLLA crystalline lattice. This work provides a new strategy to synthesize well-defined block copolymer brushes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shan Mei
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Jeffrey T Wilk
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | | | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, 37996, USA
| | - Christopher Y Li
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
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8
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Chancellor AJ, Seymour BT, Zhao B. Characterizing Polymer-Grafted Nanoparticles: From Basic Defining Parameters to Behavior in Solvents and Self-Assembled Structures. Anal Chem 2019; 91:6391-6402. [PMID: 31013073 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b00707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Polymer-grafted nanoparticles, often called hairy nanoparticles (HNPs), are an intriguing class of nanostructured hybrid materials with great potential in a variety of applications, including advanced polymer nanocomposite fabrication, drug delivery, imaging, and lubrication. This Feature provides an introduction to characterization of various aspects of HNPs, from basic defining parameters to behavior of HNPs in solvents and self-assembled structures of multicomponent brush nanoparticles, by using a broad range of analytical tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew J Chancellor
- Department of Chemistry , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
| | - Bryan T Seymour
- Department of Chemistry , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
| | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
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9
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Lenart WR, Hore MJ. Structure–property relationships of polymer-grafted nanospheres for designing advanced nanocomposites. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nanoso.2017.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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10
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Henn DM, Holmes JA, Kent EW, Zhao B. Worm-to-Sphere Shape Transition of Thermoresponsive Linear Molecular Bottlebrushes in Moderately Concentrated Aqueous Solution. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:7015-7025. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.8b04767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel M. Henn
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Jessica A. Holmes
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Ethan W. Kent
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
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11
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Seymour BT, Fu W, Wright RAE, Luo H, Qu J, Dai S, Zhao B. Improved Lubricating Performance by Combining Oil-Soluble Hairy Silica Nanoparticles and an Ionic Liquid as an Additive for a Synthetic Base Oil. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:15129-15139. [PMID: 29619826 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b01579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
This article reports on improved lubricating performance by combining oil-soluble poly(lauryl methacrylate) brush-grafted silica nanoparticles (hairy NPs or HNP) and an oil-miscible phosphonium-phosphate ionic liquid (IL) as a friction-reducing additive for a polyalphaolefin (PAO) oil. The HNP was synthesized by surface-initiated reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization. At a total concentration of 2% and sufficiently high individual concentrations for HNP and IL in PAO, high-contact stress, ball-on-flat reciprocating tribological tests showed that the friction decreased by up to 23% compared with 2% HNP alone in PAO and by up to 35% compared to the PAO mixed with 2% IL. Scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) analysis revealed that the tribofilm formed from the PAO containing 1% HNP + 1% IL was enriched with both Si and P, indicating that both hairy NPs and IL were involved in the tribochemical reactions. In addition, the O 1s and Si 2p peaks in the core-level XPS spectra exhibited significant shifts for the mixture of 1% HNP + 1% IL compared to those for 2% HNP, suggesting the possible formation of new covalent bonds. These results indicated that HNP and IL reacted with each other and also with the metal substrate during the rubbing process, which likely strengthened the tribofilm and its bonding with the substrate and thus further improved the lubrication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan T Seymour
- Department of Chemistry , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
| | - Wenxin Fu
- Department of Chemistry , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
| | - Roger A E Wright
- Department of Chemistry , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
| | | | | | - Sheng Dai
- Department of Chemistry , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
| | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry , University of Tennessee , Knoxville , Tennessee 37996 , United States
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Seymour BT, Wright RAE, Parrott AC, Gao H, Martini A, Qu J, Dai S, Zhao B. Poly(alkyl methacrylate) Brush-Grafted Silica Nanoparticles as Oil Lubricant Additives: Effects of Alkyl Pendant Groups on Oil Dispersibility, Stability, and Lubrication Property. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2017; 9:25038-25048. [PMID: 28670899 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.7b06714] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
This article reports on the synthesis of a series of poly(alkyl methacrylate) brush-grafted, 23 nm silica nanoparticles (hairy NPs) and the study of the effect of alkyl pendant length on their use as oil lubricant additives for friction and wear reduction. The hairy NPs were prepared by surface-initiated reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer polymerization from trithiocarbonate chain transfer agent (CTA)-functionalized silica NPs in the presence of a free CTA. We found that hairy NPs with sufficiently long alkyl pendant groups (containing >8 carbon atoms, such as 12, 13, 16, and 18 in this study) could be readily dispersed in poly(alphaolefin) (PAO), forming clear, homogeneous dispersions, and exhibited excellent stability at low and high temperatures as revealed by visual inspection and dynamic light scattering studies. Whereas poly(n-hexyl methacrylate) hairy NPs cannot be dispersed in PAO under ambient conditions or at 80 °C, interestingly, poly(2-ethylhexyl methacrylate) hairy NPs can be dispersed in PAO at 80 °C but not at room temperature, with a reversible clear-to-cloudy transition observed upon cooling. High-contact-stress ball-on-flat reciprocating sliding tribological tests at 100 °C showed significant reductions in both the coefficient of friction (up to 38%) and wear volume (up to 90% for iron flat) for transparent, homogeneous dispersions of hairy NPs in PAO at a concentration of 1.0 wt % compared with neat PAO. The formation of a load-bearing tribofilm at the rubbing interface was confirmed using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan T Seymour
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Roger A E Wright
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Alexander C Parrott
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Hongyu Gao
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California , Merced, California 95343, United States
| | - Ashlie Martini
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of California , Merced, California 95343, United States
| | | | - Sheng Dai
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
| | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Tennessee , Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, United States
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Fu W, Zhao B. Thermoreversible physically crosslinked hydrogels from UCST-type thermosensitive ABA linear triblock copolymers. Polym Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6py01517d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Moderately concentrated aqueous solutions of UCST-type thermosensitive ABA linear triblock copolymers undergo cooling-induced, reversible sol–gel transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxin Fu
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Tennessee
- Knoxville
- USA
| | - Bin Zhao
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Tennessee
- Knoxville
- USA
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