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Zhang W, Sun K, Suo P, Yan X, Lin X, Jin Z, Ma G. Ultrafast Photocarrier Dynamics in Vertically Aligned SnS 2 Nanoflakes Probing with Transient Terahertz Spectroscopy. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 13:5. [PMID: 36615915 PMCID: PMC9824797 DOI: 10.3390/nano13010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Revised: 12/18/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
By employing optical pump Terahertz (THz) probe spectroscopy, ultrafast photocarrier dynamics of a two-dimensional (2D) semiconductor, SnS2 nanoflake film, has been investigated systematically at room temperature. The dynamics of photoexcitation is strongly related to the density of edge sites and defects in the SnS2 nanoflakes, which is controllable by adjusting the height of vertically aligned SnS2 during chemical vapor deposition growth. After photoexcitation at 400 nm, the transient THz photoconductivity response of the films can be well fitted with bi-exponential decay function. The fast and slow processes are shorter in the thinner film than in the thicker sample, and both components are independent on the pump fluence. Hereby, we propose that edge-site trapping as well as defect-assisted electron-hole recombination are responsible for the fast and slow decay progress, respectively. Our experimental results demonstrate that the edge sites and defects in SnS2 nanoflakes play a dominant role in photocarrier relaxation, which is crucial in understanding the photoelectrochemical performance of SnS2 nanoflakes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Guohong Ma
- Department of Physics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
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2
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Sun K, Ma H, Xia W, Suo P, Zhang W, Zou Y, Lin X, Zhang S, Guo Y, Ma G. Dynamical Response of Nonlinear Optical Anisotropy in a Tin Sulfide Crystal under Ultrafast Photoexcitation. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:9355-9362. [PMID: 36190250 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c02443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Analogous to black phosphorus, SnS processes folded structure that shows a strongly anisotropic optical absorption. Herein, by using ultrafast two-color pump and probe spectroscopy, the azimuthal angle dependence of nonlinear optical anisotropy in SnS is investigated. After 390 nm photoexcitation, the reflectivity of the 780 nm probe beam is first reduced significantly, followed by a complex alternation with the rotation of the sample along the c-axis. The relaxation of reflectivity consisted of two components: a 1-3 ps fast process that shows azimuthal angle and pump fluence dependence, which arises from electron-phonon coupling. The slow process shows strongly azimuthal angle dependence, which arises from the recovery of a photoinduced structural change, i.e., from the photoinduced metastable state with Cmcm-like symmetry to the initial state with Pnma symmetry. In addition, a coherent acoustic phonon with a frequency of 40 GHz is also identified, which originates from the temperature gradient-induced strain wave in the SnS crystal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiwen Sun
- Department of Physics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Hong Ma
- School of Physics and Electronics, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Wei Xia
- School of Physical Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Peng Suo
- Department of Physics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Wenjie Zhang
- Department of Physics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Yuqing Zou
- Department of Physics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Xian Lin
- Department of Physics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Saifeng Zhang
- Department of Physics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Yanfeng Guo
- School of Physical Science and Technology, ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai 201210, China
| | - Guohong Ma
- Department of Physics, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
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3
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Lauth J, Failla M, Klein E, Klinke C, Kinge S, Siebbeles LDA. Photoexcitation of PbS nanosheets leads to highly mobile charge carriers and stable excitons. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:21569-21576. [PMID: 31688863 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr07927k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Solution-processable two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors with chemically tunable thickness and associated tunable band gaps are highly promising materials for ultrathin optoelectronics. Here, the properties of free charge carriers and excitons in 2D PbS nanosheets of different thickness are investigated by means of optical pump-terahertz probe spectroscopy. By analyzing the frequency-dependent THz response, a large quantum yield of excitons is found. The scattering time of free charge carriers increases with nanosheet thickness, which is ascribed to reduced effects of surface defects and ligands in thicker nanosheets. The data discussed provide values for the DC mobility in the range 550-1000 cm2 V-1 s-1 for PbS nanosheets with thicknesses ranging from 4 to 16 nm. Results underpin the suitability of colloidal 2D PbS nanosheets for optoelectronic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannika Lauth
- Institute of Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry, Leibniz Universität Hannover, Callinstr. 3A, D-30167 Hannover, Germany. and Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands and Cluster of Excellence PhoenixD (Photonics, Optics, and Engineering - Innovation Across Disciplines), Hannover, Germany
| | - Michele Failla
- Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Eugen Klein
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, D-20146, Germany
| | - Christian Klinke
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Universität Hamburg, Grindelallee 117, D-20146, Germany and Chemistry Department, Swansea University, SA2 8PP, UK and Institute of Physics, Universität Rostock, Albert-Einstein-Straße 23, D-18059 Rostock, Germany
| | - Sachin Kinge
- Toyota Motor Europe, Materials Research & Development, B-1930 Zaventem, Belgium
| | - Laurens D A Siebbeles
- Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
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4
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Li X, Luo N, Chen Y, Zou X, Zhu H. Real-Time Observing Ultrafast Carrier and Phonon Dynamics in Colloidal Tin Chalcogenide van der Waals Nanosheets. J Phys Chem Lett 2019; 10:3750-3755. [PMID: 31244272 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b01470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Because of their earth-abundant, low-cost, and environmentally benign characteristics, two-dimensional (2D) group IV metal chalcogenides (e.g., SnSe2) with layered structures have shown great potential in optoelectronic, photovoltaic, and thermoelectric applications. However, the intrinsic motion of excited carriers and their coupling with lattice photons, which fundamentally dictates device operation and optimization, remain yet to be unraveled. Herein, we directly follow the ultrafast carrier and photon dynamics of colloidal SnSe2 nanosheets in real time using ultrafast transient absorption spectroscopy. We show ∼0.3 ps intervalley relaxation process of photoexcited energetic carriers and ∼3 ps carrier defect trapping process with a long-lived trapped carrier (∼1 ns), highlighting the importance of trapped carriers in optoelectronic devices. In addition, ultrashort laser pulse impulsively drives coherent out-of-plane lattice vibration in SnSe2, indicating strong electron-phonon coupling in SnSe2. This strong electron-phonon coupling could impose a fundamental limit on SnSe2 photovoltaic devices but benefit its thermoelectric applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xufeng Li
- Centre for Chemistry of High-Performance & Novel Materials, Department of Chemistry , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310027 , China
| | - Nannan Luo
- The Low-Dimensional Materials and Devices Laboratory, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute , Tsinghua University , Shenzhen , Guangdong 518055 , China
| | - Yuzhong Chen
- Centre for Chemistry of High-Performance & Novel Materials, Department of Chemistry , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310027 , China
| | - Xiaolong Zou
- The Low-Dimensional Materials and Devices Laboratory, Tsinghua-Berkeley Shenzhen Institute , Tsinghua University , Shenzhen , Guangdong 518055 , China
| | - Haiming Zhu
- Centre for Chemistry of High-Performance & Novel Materials, Department of Chemistry , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310027 , China
- State Key Laboratory of Modern Optical Instrumentation , Zhejiang University , Hangzhou , Zhejiang 310027 , China
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WAHLSTRAND JK, HEILWEIL EJ. Contactless THz-based bulk semiconductor mobility measurements using two-photon excitation. OPTICS EXPRESS 2018; 26:29848-29853. [PMID: 30469943 PMCID: PMC6460479 DOI: 10.1364/oe.26.029848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
We perform contactless bulk mobility measurements for ZnSe, ZnTe, GaP, CdS, and GaSe in an optical pump THz probe experiment. As opposed to above-gap excitation or contact methods, two-photon absorption excites the entire sample thickness producing measurable signals with 1013 carriers/cm3 and higher density. For ZnTe and GaSe samples, the measured mobility using two-photon excitation is higher than that measured with one-photon excitation.
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Biacchi AJ, Le ST, Alberding BG, Hagmann JA, Pookpanratana SJ, Heilweil EJ, Richter CA, Hight Walker AR. Contact and Noncontact Measurement of Electronic Transport in Individual 2D SnS Colloidal Semiconductor Nanocrystals. ACS NANO 2018; 12:10045-10060. [PMID: 30247875 PMCID: PMC6348888 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.8b04620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Colloidal-based solution syntheses offer a scalable and cost-efficient means of producing 2D nanomaterials in high yield. While much progress has been made toward the controlled and tailorable synthesis of semiconductor nanocrystals in solution, it remains a substantial challenge to fully characterize the products' inherent electronic transport properties. This is often due to their irregular morphology or small dimensions, which demand the formation of colloidal assemblies or films as a prerequisite to performing electrical measurements. Here, we report the synthesis of nearly monodisperse 2D colloidal nanocrystals of semiconductor SnS and a thorough investigation of the intrinsic electronic transport properties of single crystals. We utilize a combination of multipoint contact probe measurements and ultrafast terahertz spectroscopy to determine the carrier concentration, carrier mobility, conductivity/resistivity, and majority carrier type of individual colloidal semiconductor nanocrystals. Employing this metrological approach, we compare the electronic properties extracted for distinct morphologies of 2D SnS and relate them to literature values. Our results indicate that the electronic transport of colloidal semiconductors may be tuned through prudent selection of the synthetic conditions. We find that these properties compare favorably to SnS grown using vapor deposition techniques, illustrating that colloidal solution synthesis is a promising route to scalable production of nanoscale 2D materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam J. Biacchi
- Nanoelectronics Group, Engineering Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Son T. Le
- Nanoelectronics Group, Engineering Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Brian G. Alberding
- Remote Sensing Group, Sensor Science Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland, 20899, United States
| | - Joseph A. Hagmann
- Nanoelectronics Group, Engineering Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Sujitra J. Pookpanratana
- Nanoelectronics Group, Engineering Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Edwin J. Heilweil
- Nanoelectronics Group, Engineering Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Curt A. Richter
- Nanoelectronics Group, Engineering Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Angela R. Hight Walker
- Nanoelectronics Group, Engineering Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
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7
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Hajzus JR, Biacchi AJ, Le ST, Richter CA, Hight Walker AR, Porter LM. Contacts to solution-synthesized SnS nanoribbons: dependence of barrier height on metal work function. NANOSCALE 2017; 10:319-327. [PMID: 29214263 PMCID: PMC5826728 DOI: 10.1039/c7nr07403d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Tin(ii) monosulfide (SnS) is a layered, anisotropic material that is of interest as a two-dimensional semiconductor for opto-electronic, thermoelectric, and piezoelectric applications. In this study, the effect of work function on contact behavior was investigated. Ni/Au, Pd/Au, Cr/Au, and Ti/Au contacts were fabricated onto individual, solution-synthesized, p-type SnS nanoribbons. The lower work function metals (Cr and Ti) formed Schottky contacts, whereas the higher work function metals (Ni and Pd) formed ohmic or semi-ohmic contacts. Of the ohmic contacts, Ni was found to have a lower contact resistance (∼10-4 Ω cm2 or lower) than Pd (∼10-3 Ω cm2 or lower). Both the calculated Schottky barriers (0.39 and 0.50 eV) for Cr and Ti, respectively, and the ohmic behavior for Ni and Pd agree with behavior predicted by Schottky-Mott theory. The results indicate that high work function metals should be considered to form low resistance contacts to SnS multilayers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenifer R Hajzus
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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Alberding BG, Thurber WR, Heilweil EJ. Direct comparison of time-resolved Terahertz spectroscopy and Hall Van der Pauw methods for measurement of carrier conductivity and mobility in bulk semiconductors. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. B, OPTICAL PHYSICS 2017; 34:1392-1406. [PMID: 28924327 PMCID: PMC5600209 DOI: 10.1364/josab.34.001392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Charge carrier conductivity and mobility for various semiconductor wafers and crystals were measured by ultrafast above bandgap, optically excited Time-Resolved Terahertz Spectroscopy (TRTS) and Hall Van der Pauw contact methods to directly compare these approaches and validate the use of the non-contact optical approach for future materials and in-situ device analyses. Undoped and doped silicon (Si) wafers with resistances varying over six orders of magnitude were selected as model systems since contact Hall measurements are reliably made on this material. Conductivity and mobility obtained at room temperature by terahertz transmission and TRTS methods yields the sum of electron and hole mobility which agree very well with either directly measured or literature values for corresponding atomic and photo-doping densities. Careful evaluation of the optically-generated TRTS frequency-dependent conductivity also shows it is dominated by induced free-carrier absorption rather than small probe pulse phase shifts, which is commonly ascribed to changes in the complex conductivity from sample morphology and evaluation of carrier mobility by applying Drude scattering models. Thus, in this work, the real-valued, frequency-averaged conductivity was used to extract sample mobility without application of models. Examinations of germanium (Ge), gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide (GaP) and zinc telluride (ZnTe) samples were also made to demonstrate the general applicability of the TRTS method, even for materials that do not reliably make good contacts (e.g., GaAs, GaP, ZnTe). For these cases, values for the sum of the electron and hole mobility also compare very favorably to measured or available published data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian G. Alberding
- Radiation Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - W. Robert Thurber
- Engineering Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - Edwin J. Heilweil
- Radiation Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
- Corresponding author:
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9
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Alberding BG, DeSario PA, So CR, Dunkelberger AD, Rolison DR, Owrutsky JC, Heilweil EJ. Static and Time-Resolved Terahertz Measurements of Photoconductivity in Solution-Deposited Ruthenium Dioxide Nanofilms. THE JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY. C, NANOMATERIALS AND INTERFACES 2017; 121:4037-4044. [PMID: 28890744 PMCID: PMC5590661 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcc.6b12382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Thin-film ruthenium dioxide (RuO2) is a promising alternative material as a conductive electrode in electronic applications because its rutile crystalline form is metallic and highly conductive. Herein, a solution-deposition multi-layer technique is employed to fabricate ca. 70 ± 20 nm thick films (nanoskins) and terahertz spectroscopy is used to determine their photoconductive properties. Upon calcining at temperatures ranging from 373 K to 773 K, nanoskins undergo a transformation from insulating (localized charge transport) behavior to metallic behavior. Terahertz time-domain spectroscopy (THz-TDS) indicates that nanoskins attain maximum static conductivity when calcined at 673 K (σ = 1030 ± 330 S·cm-1). Picosecond time-resolved Terahertz spectroscopy (TRTS) using 400 nm and 800 nm excitation reveals a transition to metallic behavior when calcined at 523 K. For calcine temperatures less than 523 K, the conductivity increases following photoexcitation (ΔE < 0) while higher calcine temperatures yield films composed of crystalline, rutile RuO2 and the conductivity decreases (ΔE > 0) following photoexcitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian G. Alberding
- Radiation Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
| | - Paul A. DeSario
- Chemistry Division, Code 6100, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., 20375 USA
| | - Christopher R. So
- Chemistry Division, Code 6100, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., 20375 USA
| | | | - Debra R. Rolison
- Chemistry Division, Code 6100, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., 20375 USA
| | - Jeffrey C. Owrutsky
- Chemistry Division, Code 6100, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C., 20375 USA
| | - Edwin J. Heilweil
- Radiation Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD, 20899, USA
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10
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Lauth J, Kinge S, Siebbeles LD. Ultrafast Transient Absorption and Terahertz Spectroscopy as Tools to Probe Photoexcited States and Dynamics in Colloidal 2D Nanostructures. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1515/zpch-2016-0911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors hold high potential for the implementation of efficient ultrathin electronics (e.g. field-effect transistors, light emitting diodes and solar cell devices). In recent years, colloidal methods to synthesize ultrathin 2D materials have been developed that offer alternatives (like the production of non-layered 2D materials and upscaling) to mechanical exfoliation methods. By focusing on optoelectronic applications, it is important to characterize the nature and dynamics of photoexcited states in these materials. In this paper, we use ultrafast transient absorption (TA) and terahertz (THz) spectroscopy as optimal tools for such a characterization. We choose recently synthesized ultrathin colloidal 2D InSe nanosheets (inorganic layer thickness 0.8–1.7 nm; ≤5 nm including ligands) for discussing TA and THz spectroscopic studies and elucidate their charge carrier dynamics under photoexcitation with TA. THz spectroscopy is then used to extract contactless AC mobilities as high as 20±2 cm2/Vs in single InSe layers. The obtained results underpin the general applicability of TA and THz spectroscopy for characterizing photoexcited states in 2D semiconductors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannika Lauth
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Sachin Kinge
- Toyota Motor Europe, Materials Research and Development, Hoge Wei 33, B-1930, Zaventem, Belgium
| | - Laurens D.A. Siebbeles
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology, Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
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Lauth J, Kulkarni A, Spoor FCM, Renaud N, Grozema FC, Houtepen AJ, Schins JM, Kinge S, Siebbeles LDA. Photogeneration and Mobility of Charge Carriers in Atomically Thin Colloidal InSe Nanosheets Probed by Ultrafast Terahertz Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem Lett 2016; 7:4191-4196. [PMID: 27715056 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.6b01835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The implementation of next generation ultrathin electronics by applying highly promising dimensionality-dependent physical properties of two-dimensional (2D) semiconductors is ever increasing. In this context, the van der Waals layered semiconductor InSe has proven its potential as photodetecting material with high charge carrier mobility. We have determined the photogeneration charge carrier quantum yield and mobility in atomically thin colloidal InSe nanosheets (inorganic layer thickness 0.8-1.7 nm, mono/double-layers, ≤ 5 nm including ligands) by ultrafast transient terahertz (THz) spectroscopy. A near unity quantum yield of free charge carriers is determined for low photoexcitation density. The charge carrier quantum yield decreases at higher excitation density due to recombination of electrons and holes, leading to the formation of neutral excitons. In the THz frequency domain, we probe a charge mobility as high as 20 ± 2 cm2/(V s). The THz mobility is similar to field-effect transistor mobilities extracted from unmodified exfoliated thin InSe devices. The current work provides the first results on charge carrier dynamics in ultrathin colloidal InSe nanosheets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jannika Lauth
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology , Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Aditya Kulkarni
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology , Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Frank C M Spoor
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology , Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Nicolas Renaud
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology , Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Ferdinand C Grozema
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology , Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Arjan J Houtepen
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology , Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Juleon M Schins
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology , Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Sachin Kinge
- Toyota Motor Europe, Materials Research & Development , Hoge Wei 33, B-1930 Zaventem, Belgium
| | - Laurens D A Siebbeles
- Chemical Engineering Department, Delft University of Technology , Van der Maasweg 9, NL-2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
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