1
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Zhang T, Lyu J, Yang B, Yun SD, Scott E, Zhao M, Laganowsky A. Native mass spectrometry and structural studies reveal modulation of MsbA-nucleotide interactions by lipids. Nat Commun 2024; 15:5946. [PMID: 39009687 PMCID: PMC11251056 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-50350-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2024] [Indexed: 07/17/2024] Open
Abstract
The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter, MsbA, plays a pivotal role in lipopolysaccharide (LPS) biogenesis by facilitating the transport of the LPS precursor lipooligosaccharide (LOS) from the cytoplasmic to the periplasmic leaflet of the inner membrane. Despite multiple studies shedding light on MsbA, the role of lipids in modulating MsbA-nucleotide interactions remains poorly understood. Here we use native mass spectrometry (MS) to investigate and resolve nucleotide and lipid binding to MsbA, demonstrating that the transporter has a higher affinity for adenosine 5'-diphosphate (ADP). Moreover, native MS shows the LPS-precursor 3-deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid (Kdo)2-lipid A (KDL) can tune the selectivity of MsbA for adenosine 5'-triphosphate (ATP) over ADP. Guided by these studies, four open, inward-facing structures of MsbA are determined that vary in their openness. We also report a 2.7 Å-resolution structure of MsbA in an open, outward-facing conformation that is not only bound to KDL at the exterior site, but with the nucleotide binding domains (NBDs) adopting a distinct nucleotide-free structure. The results obtained from this study offer valuable insight and snapshots of MsbA during the transport cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianqi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Jixing Lyu
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Bowei Yang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Sangho D Yun
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Elena Scott
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Minglei Zhao
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Arthur Laganowsky
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
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2
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Stover L, Zhu Y, Schrecke S, Laganowsky A. TREK2 Lipid Binding Preferences Revealed by Native Mass Spectrometry. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2024; 35:1516-1522. [PMID: 38843438 PMCID: PMC11228984 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.4c00112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
TREK2, a two-pore domain potassium channel, is recognized for its regulation by various stimuli, including lipids. While previous members of the TREK subfamily, TREK1 and TRAAK, have been investigated to elucidate their lipid affinity and selectivity, TREK2 has not been similarly studied in this regard. Our findings indicate that while TRAAK and TREK2 exhibit similarities in terms of electrostatics and share an overall structural resemblance, there are notable distinctions in their interaction with lipids. Specifically, SAPI(4,5)P2,1-stearoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-myo-inositol-4',5'-bisphosphate) exhibits a strong affinity for TREK2, surpassing that of dOPI(4,5)P2,1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-myo-inositol-4',5'-bisphosphate), which differs in its acyl chains. TREK2 displays lipid binding preferences not only for the headgroup of lipids but also toward the acyl chains. Functional studies draw a correlation for lipid binding affinity and activity of the channel. These findings provide important insight into elucidating the molecular prerequisites for specific lipid binding to TREK2 important for function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Stover
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Yun Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Samantha Schrecke
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Arthur Laganowsky
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
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3
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Jayasekera HS, Mohona FA, Ewbank M, Marty MT. Simultaneous Native Mass Spectrometry Analysis of Single and Double Mutants To Probe Lipid Binding to Membrane Proteins. Anal Chem 2024; 96:10426-10433. [PMID: 38859611 PMCID: PMC11215972 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c01704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2024]
Abstract
Lipids are critical modulators of membrane protein structure and function. However, it is challenging to investigate the thermodynamics of protein-lipid interactions because lipids can simultaneously bind membrane proteins at different sites with different specificities. Here, we developed a native mass spectrometry (MS) approach using single and double mutants to measure the relative energetic contributions of specific residues on Aquaporin Z (AqpZ) toward cardiolipin (CL) binding. We first mutated potential lipid-binding residues on AqpZ, and mixed mutant and wild-type proteins together with CL. By using native MS to simultaneously resolve lipid binding to the mutant and wild-type proteins in a single spectrum, we directly determined the relative affinities of CL binding, thereby revealing the relative Gibbs free energy change for lipid binding caused by the mutation. Comparing different mutants revealed that W14 contributes to the tightest CL binding site, with R224 contributing to a lower affinity site. Using double mutant cycling, we investigated the synergy between W14 and R224 sites on CL binding. Overall, this novel native MS approach provides unique insights into the binding of lipids to specific sites on membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiruni S. Jayasekera
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Farhana Afrin Mohona
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Megan Ewbank
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
| | - Michael T. Marty
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721
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4
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Gu Y, Liu M, Ma L, Quinn RJ. Advancing Kir4.2 Channel Ligand Identification through Collision-Induced Affinity Selection Mass Spectrometry. ACS Chem Biol 2024; 19:763-773. [PMID: 38449446 PMCID: PMC10949200 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.3c00781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
The inwardly rectifying potassium Kir4.2 channel plays a crucial role in regulating membrane potentials and maintaining potassium homeostasis. Kir4.2 has been implicated in various physiological processes, including insulin secretion, gastric acid regulation, and the pathogenesis of central nervous system diseases. Despite its significance, the number of identified ligands for Kir4.2 remains limited. In this study, we established a method to directly observe ligands avoiding a requirement to observe the high-mass ligand-membrane protein-detergent complexes. This method used collision-induced affinity selection mass spectrometry (CIAS-MS) to identify ligands dissociated from the Kir4.2 channel-detergent complex. The CIAS-MS approach integrated all stages of affinity selection within the mass spectrometer, offering advantages in terms of time efficiency and cost-effectiveness. Additionally, we explored the effect of collisional voltage ramps on the dissociation behavior of the ligand and the ligand at different concentrations, demonstrating dose dependency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yushu Gu
- Griffith
Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Miaomiao Liu
- Griffith
Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Linlin Ma
- Griffith
Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia
- School
of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia
| | - Ronald J. Quinn
- Griffith
Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Brisbane, Queensland 4111, Australia
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5
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Lyu J, Zhang T, Marty MT, Clemmer D, Russell DH, Laganowsky A. Double and triple thermodynamic mutant cycles reveal the basis for specific MsbA-lipid interactions. eLife 2024; 12:RP91094. [PMID: 38252560 PMCID: PMC10945598 DOI: 10.7554/elife.91094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Structural and functional studies of the ATP-binding cassette transporter MsbA have revealed two distinct lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binding sites: one located in the central cavity and the other at a membrane-facing, exterior site. Although these binding sites are known to be important for MsbA function, the thermodynamic basis for these specific MsbA-LPS interactions is not well understood. Here, we use native mass spectrometry to determine the thermodynamics of MsbA interacting with the LPS-precursor 3-deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid (Kdo)2-lipid A (KDL). The binding of KDL is solely driven by entropy, despite the transporter adopting an inward-facing conformation or trapped in an outward-facing conformation with adenosine 5'-diphosphate and vanadate. An extension of the mutant cycle approach is employed to probe basic residues that interact with KDL. We find the molecular recognition of KDL is driven by a positive coupling entropy (as large as -100 kJ/mol at 298 K) that outweighs unfavorable coupling enthalpy. These findings indicate that alterations in solvent reorganization and conformational entropy can contribute significantly to the free energy of protein-lipid association. The results presented herein showcase the advantage of native MS to obtain thermodynamic insight into protein-lipid interactions that would otherwise be intractable using traditional approaches, and this enabling technology will be instrumental in the life sciences and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jixing Lyu
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M UniversityCollege StationUnited States
| | - Tianqi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M UniversityCollege StationUnited States
| | - Michael T Marty
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, The University of ArizonaTucsonUnited States
| | - David Clemmer
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana UniversityBloomingtonUnited States
| | - David H Russell
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M UniversityCollege StationUnited States
| | - Arthur Laganowsky
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M UniversityCollege StationUnited States
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6
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Jayasekera HS, Mohona FA, Ewbank M, Marty MT. SIMULTANEOUS NATIVE MASS SPECTROMETRY ANALYSIS OF SINGLE AND DOUBLE MUTANTS TO PROBE LIPID BINDING TO MEMBRANE PROTEINS. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.19.558516. [PMID: 37781586 PMCID: PMC10541089 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.19.558516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Lipids are critical modulators of membrane protein structure and function. However, it is challenging to investigate the thermodynamics of protein-lipid interactions because lipids can simultaneously bind membrane proteins at different sites with different specificities. Here, we developed a native mass spectrometry (MS) approach using single and double mutants to measure the relative energetic contributions of specific residues on Aquaporin Z (AqpZ) toward cardiolipin (CL) binding. We first mutated potential lipid-binding residues on AqpZ, and mixed mutant and wild-type proteins together with CL. By using native MS to simultaneously resolve lipid binding to the mutant and wild-type proteins in a single spectrum, we directly determined the relative affinities of CL binding, thereby revealing the relative Gibbs free energy change for lipid binding caused by the mutation. Comparing different mutants revealed that the W14 contributes to the tightest CL binding site, with R224 contributing to a lower affinity site. Using double mutant cycling, we investigated the synergy between W14 and R224 sites on CL binding. Overall, this novel native MS approach provides unique insights into lipid binding to specific sites on membrane proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiruni S. Jayasekera
- [a] Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721
| | - Farhana Afrin Mohona
- [a] Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721
| | - Megan Ewbank
- [a] Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721
| | - Michael T. Marty
- [a] Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721
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7
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Lyu J, Zhang T, Marty MT, Clemmer D, Russell DH, Laganowsky A. Double and triple thermodynamic mutant cycles reveal the basis for specific MsbA-lipid interactions. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.07.03.547565. [PMID: 37461710 PMCID: PMC10350010 DOI: 10.1101/2023.07.03.547565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/27/2023]
Abstract
Structural and functional studies of the ATP-binding cassette transporter MsbA have revealed two distinct lipopolysaccharide (LPS) binding sites: one located in the central cavity and the other at a membrane-facing, exterior site. Although these binding sites are known to be important for MsbA function, the thermodynamic basis for these specific MsbA-LPS interactions is not well understood. Here, we use native mass spectrometry to determine the thermodynamics of MsbA interacting with the LPS-precursor 3-deoxy-D-manno-oct-2-ulosonic acid (Kdo)2-lipid A (KDL). The binding of KDL is solely driven by entropy, despite the transporter adopting an inward-facing conformation or trapped in an outward-facing conformation with adenosine 5'-diphosphate and vanadate. An extension of the mutant cycle approach is employed to probe basic residues that interact with KDL. We find the molecular recognition of KDL is driven by a positive coupling entropy (as large as -100 kJ/mol at 298K) that outweighs unfavorable coupling enthalpy. These findings indicate that alterations in solvent reorganization and conformational entropy can contribute significantly to the free energy of protein-lipid association. The results presented herein showcase the advantage of native MS to obtain thermodynamic insight into protein-lipid interactions that would otherwise be intractable using traditional approaches, and this enabling technology will be instrumental in the life sciences and drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jixing Lyu
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Tianqi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Michael T. Marty
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Bio5 Institute, The University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721
| | - David Clemmer
- Department of Chemistry, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 47405
| | - David H. Russell
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
| | - Arthur Laganowsky
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77843
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8
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Zhu Y, Peng BJ, Kumar S, Stover L, Chang JY, Lyu J, Zhang T, Schrecke S, Azizov D, Russell DH, Fang L, Laganowsky A. Polyamine detergents tailored for native mass spectrometry studies of membrane proteins. Nat Commun 2023; 14:5676. [PMID: 37709761 PMCID: PMC10502129 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41429-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/28/2023] [Indexed: 09/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Native mass spectrometry (MS) is a powerful technique for interrogating membrane protein complexes and their interactions with other molecules. A key aspect of the technique is the ability to preserve native-like structures and noncovalent interactions, which can be challenging depending on the choice of detergent. Different strategies have been employed to reduce charge on protein complexes to minimize activation and preserve non-covalent interactions. Here, we report the synthesis of a class of polyamine detergents tailored for native MS studies of membrane proteins. These detergents, a series of spermine covalently attached to various alkyl tails, are exceptional charge-reducing molecules, exhibiting a ten-fold enhanced potency over spermine. Addition of polyamine detergents to proteins solubilized in maltoside detergents results in improved, charge-reduced native mass spectra and reduced dissociation of subunits. Polyamine detergents open new opportunities to investigate membrane proteins in different detergent environments that have thwarted previous native MS studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Zhu
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Bo-Ji Peng
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Smriti Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Lauren Stover
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Jing-Yuan Chang
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Jixing Lyu
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Tianqi Zhang
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Samantha Schrecke
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Djavdat Azizov
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - David H Russell
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - Lei Fang
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
| | - Arthur Laganowsky
- Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA.
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9
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Walker T, Sun HM, Gunnels T, Wysocki V, Laganowsky A, Rye H, Russell D. Dissecting the Thermodynamics of ATP Binding to GroEL One Nucleotide at a Time. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2023; 9:466-475. [PMID: 36968544 PMCID: PMC10037461 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.2c01065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Variable-temperature electrospray ionization (vT-ESI) native mass spectrometry (nMS) is used to determine the thermodynamics for stepwise binding of up to 14 ATP molecules to the 801 kDa GroEL tetradecamer chaperonin complex. Detailed analysis reveals strong enthalpy-entropy compensation (EEC) for the ATP binding events leading to formation of GroEL-ATP7 and GroEL-ATP14 complexes. The observed variations in EEC and stepwise free energy changes of specific ATP binding are consistent with the well-established nested cooperativity model describing GroEL-ATP interactions, viz., intraring positive cooperativity and inter-ring negative cooperativity (Dyachenko A.; Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.2013, 110, 7235-7239). Entropy-driven ATP binding is to be expected for ligand-induced conformational changes of the GroEL tetradecamer, though the magnitude of the entropy change suggests that reorganization of GroEL-hydrating water molecules and/or expulsion of water from the GroEL cavity may also play key roles. The capability for determining complete thermodynamic signatures (ΔG, ΔH, and -TΔS) for individual ligand binding reactions for the large, nearly megadalton GroEL complex expands our fundamental view of chaperonin functional chemistry. Moreover, this work and related studies of protein-ligand interactions illustrate important new capabilities of vT-ESI-nMS for thermodynamic studies of protein interactions with ligands and other molecules such as proteins and drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Walker
- Department
of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - He Mirabel Sun
- Department
of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Tiffany Gunnels
- Department
of Biochemistry & Biophysics, Texas
A&M University, College
Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Vicki Wysocki
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The Ohio
State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Arthur Laganowsky
- Department
of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Hays Rye
- Department
of Biochemistry & Biophysics, Texas
A&M University, College
Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - David Russell
- Department
of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
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10
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Schrader R, Walker TE, Chakravorty S, Anderson GA, Reilly PTA, Russell DH. Optimization of a Digital Mass Filter for the Isolation of Intact Protein Complexes in Stability Zone 1,1. Anal Chem 2023; 95:3062-3068. [PMID: 36701646 PMCID: PMC9983038 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c05221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Digital mass filters are advantageous for the analysis of large molecules due to the ability to perform ion isolation of high-m/z ions without the generation of very high radio frequency (RF) and DC voltages. Experimentally determined Mathieu stability diagrams of stability zone 1,1 for capacitively coupled digital waveforms show a voltage offset between the quadrupole rod pairs is introduced by the capacitors which is dependent on the voltage magnitude of the waveform and the duty cycle. This changes the ion's a value from a = 0 to a < 0. These effects are illustrated for isolation for single-charge states for various protein complexes up to 800 kDa (GroEL) for stability zone 1,1. Isolation resolving power (m/Δm) of approximately 280 was achieved for an ion of m/z 12,315 (z = 65+ for 800.5 kDa GroEL D398A), which corresponds to an m/z window of 44.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert
L. Schrader
- Department
of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas77843, United States
| | - Thomas E. Walker
- Department
of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas77843, United States
| | - Sumeet Chakravorty
- Department
of Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington99164, United States
| | | | - Peter T. A. Reilly
- Department
of Chemistry, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington99164, United States
| | - David H. Russell
- Department
of Chemistry, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas77843, United States
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11
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Jordan JS, Williams ER. Laser Heating Nanoelectrospray Emitters for Fast Protein Melting Measurements with Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2022; 94:16894-16900. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c04204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob S. Jordan
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Evan R. Williams
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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