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Doyle E, Mirmira P, Ma P, Vu MC, Hixson-Wells T, Kumar R, Amanchukwu CV. Phase Morphology Dependence of Ionic Conductivity and Oxidative Stability in Fluorinated Ether Solid-State Electrolytes. CHEMISTRY OF MATERIALS : A PUBLICATION OF THE AMERICAN CHEMICAL SOCIETY 2024; 36:5063-5076. [PMID: 38828186 PMCID: PMC11137829 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemmater.4c00199] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2024] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
Solid-state polymer electrolytes can enable the safe operation of high energy density lithium metal batteries; unfortunately, they have low ionic conductivity and poor redox stability at electrode interfaces. Fluorinated ether polymer electrolytes are a promising approach because the ether units can solvate and conduct ions, while the fluorinated moieties can increase oxidative stability. However, current perfluoropolyether (PFPE) electrolytes exhibit deficient lithium-ion coordination and ion transport. Here, we incorporate cross-linked poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) units within the PFPE matrix and increase the polymer blend electrolyte conductivity by 6 orders of magnitude as compared to pure PFPE at 60 °C from 1.55 × 10-11 to 2.26 × 10-5 S/cm. Blending varying ratios of PEG and PFPE induces microscale phase separation, and we show the impact of morphology on ion solvation and dynamics in the electrolyte. Spectroscopy and simulations show weak ion-PFPE interactions, which promote salt phase segregation into-and ion transport within-the PEG domain. These polymer electrolytes show promise for use in high-voltage lithium metal batteries with improved Li|Li cycling due to enhanced mechanical properties and high-voltage stability beyond 6 V versus Li/Li+. Our work provides insights into transport and stability in fluorinated polymer electrolytes for next-generation batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily
S. Doyle
- Pritzker School of Molecular
Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Priyadarshini Mirmira
- Pritzker School of Molecular
Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Peiyuan Ma
- Pritzker School of Molecular
Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Minh Canh Vu
- Pritzker School of Molecular
Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Trinity Hixson-Wells
- Pritzker School of Molecular
Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Ritesh Kumar
- Pritzker School of Molecular
Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Chibueze V. Amanchukwu
- Pritzker School of Molecular
Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
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Naboulsi A, Chometon R, Ribot F, Nguyen G, Fichet O, Laberty-Robert C. Correlation between Ionic Conductivity and Mechanical Properties of Solid-like PEO-based Polymer Electrolyte. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:13869-13881. [PMID: 38466181 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c19249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
Poly(ethylene glycol) methyl ether methacrylate polymer networks (PEO-based networks), with or without anionic bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide (TFSI)-grafted groups, are promising electrolytes for Li-metal all solid-state batteries. Nevertheless, there is a need to enhance our current understanding of the physicochemical characteristics of these polymer networks to meet the mechanical and ionic conductivity property requirements for Li battery electrolyte materials. To address this challenge, our goal is to investigate the impact of the cross-linking density of the PEO-based network and the ethylene oxide/lithium ratio on mechanical properties (such as glass transition temperature and storage modulus) and ionic conductivity. We have synthesized a series of cross-linked PEO-based polymers (si-SPE for single ion solid polymer electrolyte) via solvent-free radical copolymerization. These polymers are synthesized by using commercially available lithium 3-[(trifluoromethane)sulfonamidosulfonyl]propyl methacrylate (LiMTFSI), poly(ethylene glycol)methyl ether methacrylate (PEGM), and [poly(ethylene glycol) dimethacrylate] (PEGDM). In addition, we have synthesized a series of cross-linked PEO-based polymers (SPE for solid polymer electrolyte) using LiTFSI as the ionic species. Most of the resulting polymer films are amorphous, self-standing, flexible, homogeneous, and thermally stable. Interestingly, our research has revealed a correlation between ionic conductivity and mechanical properties in both the SPE and si-SPE series. Ionic conductivity increases as glass transition temperature, α relaxation temperature, and storage modulus decrease, suggesting that Li+ transport is influenced by polymer chain flexibility and Li+/EO interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agathe Naboulsi
- LPPI, CY Cergy Paris Université, F-95000 Cergy, France
- Sorbonne Université́, CNRS, Laboratoire Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Paris, LCMCP, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
- RS2E, Réseau Français sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie, CNRS 3459, 80039 Cedex 1 Amiens, France
| | - Ronan Chometon
- Sorbonne Université́, CNRS, Laboratoire Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Paris, LCMCP, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
- RS2E, Réseau Français sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie, CNRS 3459, 80039 Cedex 1 Amiens, France
- CSE, Collège de France, 4 Place Marcellin Berthelot, 75005 Paris, France
| | - François Ribot
- Sorbonne Université́, CNRS, Laboratoire Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Paris, LCMCP, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Giao Nguyen
- LPPI, CY Cergy Paris Université, F-95000 Cergy, France
| | - Odile Fichet
- LPPI, CY Cergy Paris Université, F-95000 Cergy, France
| | - Christel Laberty-Robert
- Sorbonne Université́, CNRS, Laboratoire Chimie de la Matière Condensée de Paris, LCMCP, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
- RS2E, Réseau Français sur le Stockage Electrochimique de l'Energie, CNRS 3459, 80039 Cedex 1 Amiens, France
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Cai X, Cai Z, Yuan H, Zhang W, Wang S, Wang H, Lan J, Yu Y, Yang X. An initiator-free and solvent-free in-situ self-catalyzed crosslinked polymer electrolyte for all-solid-state lithium-metal batteries. J Colloid Interface Sci 2023; 648:972-982. [PMID: 37331078 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2023.06.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Linear polymer (e.g. polyethylene oxide, PEO) based electrolytes have been widely studied due to their flexibility and relatively good contact against electrodes. However, the linear polymers are prone to crystallization at room temperature and melting at moderate temperature, restricting their application in lithium metal batteries. To address these problems, a self-catalyzed crosslinked polymer electrolyte (CPE) was designed and prepared by the reaction of poly (ethylene glycol diglycidyl ether) (PEGDGE) and polyoxypropylenediamine (PPO) with only the bistrifluoromethanesulfonimide lithium salt (LiTFSI) added and with no any initiators. LiTFSI catalyzed the reaction by reducing the activation energy to form a crosslinked network structure, which was identified by calculation, NMR and FTIR. The as-prepared CPE has high resilience and a low glass transition temperature (Tg = -60 °C). Meanwhile, the solvent-free in-situ polymerization technique has been adopted in the assembly of the CPE with electrodes to decrease the interfacial impedance greatly and improve the ionic conductivity to 2.05 × 10-5 S cm-1 and 2.55 × 10-4 S cm-1 at room temperature and 75 °C, respectively. As a result, the in-situ LiFeO4/CPE/Li battery exhibits outstanding thermal and electrochemical stability at 75 °C. Our work has proposed an initiator-free and solvent-free in-situ self-catalyzed strategy of preparing high performance crosslinked solid polymer electrolytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, PR China
| | - Zhenwei Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, PR China
| | - Haocheng Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, PR China
| | - Wenjie Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, PR China
| | - Shen Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, PR China
| | - Haijun Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, PR China
| | - Jinle Lan
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, PR China.
| | - Yunhua Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, PR China.
| | - Xiaoping Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Organic-Inorganic Composites, College of Materials Science and Engineering, Beijing University of Chemical Technology, No. 15 Beisanhuan East Road, Chaoyang District, Beijing 100029, PR China
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Zhu C, Pedretti BJ, Kuehster L, Ganesan V, Sanoja GE, Lynd NA. Ionic Conductivity, Salt Partitioning, and Phase Separation in High-Dielectric Contrast Polyether Blends and Block Polymer Electrolytes. Macromolecules 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c02023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Congzhi Zhu
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Benjamin J. Pedretti
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Louise Kuehster
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Venkat Ganesan
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Gabriel E. Sanoja
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Nathaniel A. Lynd
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
- Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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5
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Lee J, Gao KW, Shah NJ, Kang C, Snyder RL, Abel BA, He L, Teixeira SCM, Coates GW, Balsara NP. Relationship between Ion Transport and Phase Behavior in Acetal-Based Polymer Blend Electrolytes Studied by Electrochemical Characterization and Neutron Scattering. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jaeyong Lee
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California94720, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California94720, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
| | - Kevin W. Gao
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California94720, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California94720, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
| | - Neel J. Shah
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California94720, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California94720, United States
| | - Cheol Kang
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York14850, United States
| | - Rachel L. Snyder
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York14850, United States
| | - Brooks A. Abel
- Department of Chemistry, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California94720, United States
| | - Lilin He
- Neutron Scattering Division, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Knoxville, Tennessee37830, United States
| | - Susana C. M. Teixeira
- NIST Center for Neutron Research, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland20899, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware19716, United States
| | - Geoffrey W. Coates
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York14850, United States
| | - Nitash P. Balsara
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California94720, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California94720, United States
- Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois60439, United States
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6
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Synthesis of poly(1,2-butylene oxide-stat-tetrahydrofuran) by controllable polymerization over Sc(OTf)3 for use in high-performance lubricating oil. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2022.111483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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7
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Pedretti BJ, Czarnecki NJ, Zhu C, Imbrogno J, Rivers F, Freeman BD, Ganesan V, Lynd NA. Structure–Property Relationships for Polyether-Based Electrolytes in the High-Dielectric-Constant Regime. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin J. Pedretti
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Natalie J. Czarnecki
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Congzhi Zhu
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Jennifer Imbrogno
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Frederick Rivers
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Benny D. Freeman
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Venkat Ganesan
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Nathaniel A. Lynd
- McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
- Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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8
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Dirauf M, Muljajew I, Weber C, Schubert US. Recent advances in degradable synthetic polymers for biomedical applications – Beyond polyesters. Prog Polym Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.progpolymsci.2022.101547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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9
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Imbrogno J, Maruyama K, Rivers F, Baltzegar JR, Zhang Z, Meyer PW, Ganesan V, Aoshima S, Lynd NA. Relationship between Ionic Conductivity, Glass Transition Temperature, and Dielectric Constant in Poly(vinyl ether) Lithium Electrolytes. ACS Macro Lett 2021; 10:1002-1007. [PMID: 35549112 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
We report a partial elucidation of the relationship between polymer polarity and ionic conductivity in polymer electrolyte mixtures comprising a homologous series of nine poly(vinyl ether)s (PVEs) and lithium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide. Recent simulation studies have suggested that low dielectric polymer hosts with glass transition temperatures far below ambient conditions are expected to have ionic conductivity limited by salt solubility and dissociation. In contrast, high dielectric hosts are expected to have the potential for high ion solubility but slow segmental dynamics due to strong polymer-polymer and polymer-ion interactions. We report results for PVEs in the low polarity regime with dielectric constants of about 1.3 to 9.0. Ionic conductivity measured for the PVE and salt mixtures ranged from about 10-10 to 10-3 S/cm. In agreement with the predictions from computer simulations, the ionic conductivity increased with dielectric constant and plateaued as the dielectric approached 9.0, comparable to the dielectric constant of the widely used poly(ethylene oxide).
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kazuya Maruyama
- Department of Macromolecular Science, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Sadahito Aoshima
- Department of Macromolecular Science, Graduate School of Science, Osaka University, Toyonaka, Osaka 560-0043, Japan
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10
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Polyether Single and Double Crystalline Blends and the Effect of Lithium Salt on Their Crystallinity and Ionic Conductivity. Polymers (Basel) 2021; 13:polym13132097. [PMID: 34202328 PMCID: PMC8271483 DOI: 10.3390/polym13132097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this work, blends of Poly(ethylene oxide), PEO, and poly(1,6-hexanediol), PHD, were prepared in a wide composition range. They were examined by Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), Polarized Light Optical Microscopy (PLOM) and Wide Angle X-ray Scattering (WAXS). Based on the results obtained, the blends were partially miscible in the melt and their crystallization was a function of miscibility and composition. Crystallization triggered phase separation. In blends with higher PEO contents both phases were able to crystallize due to the limited miscibility in this composition range. On the other hand, the blends with higher PHD contents display higher miscibility and therefore, only the PHD phase could crystallize in them. A nucleation effect of the PHD phase on the PEO phase was detected, probably caused by a transference of impurities mechanism. Since PEO is widely used as electrolyte in lithium batteries, the PEO/PHD blends were studied with lithium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl) imide (LiTFSI), and the effect of Li-salt concentration was studied. We found that the lithium salt preferentially dissolves in the PEO phase without significantly affecting the PHD component. While the Li-salt reduced the spherulite growth rate of the PEO phase within the blends, the overall crystallization rate was enhanced because of the strong nucleating effect of the PHD component. The ionic conductivity was also determined for the blends with Li-salt. At high temperatures (>70 °C), the conductivity is in the order of ~10−3 S cm−1, and as the temperature decreases, the crystallization of PHD was detected. This improved the self-standing character of the blend films at high temperatures as compared to the one of neat PEO.
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11
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Shen KH, Fan M, Hall LM. Molecular Dynamics Simulations of Ion-Containing Polymers Using Generic Coarse-Grained Models. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kuan-Hsuan Shen
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Mengdi Fan
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
| | - Lisa M. Hall
- William G. Lowrie Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, United States
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12
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Shah NJ, Dadashi-Silab S, Galluzzo MD, Chakraborty S, Loo WS, Matyjaszewski K, Balsara NP. Effect of Added Salt on Disordered Poly(ethylene oxide)-Block-Poly(methyl methacrylate) Copolymer Electrolytes. Macromolecules 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c02493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Neel J. Shah
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Sajjad Dadashi-Silab
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Michael D. Galluzzo
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Saheli Chakraborty
- Energy Storage and Distributed Resources Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Whitney S. Loo
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Krzysztof Matyjaszewski
- Department of Chemistry, Carnegie Mellon University, 4400 Fifth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15213, United States
| | - Nitash P. Balsara
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Materials Sciences Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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