Nanoscale Measurements of Charge Transfer at Cocatalyst/Semiconductor Interfaces in BiVO4 Particle Photocatalysts

Scanning Probe Microscopies for Characterizations of 2D Materials

2D materials are intriguing due to their remarkably thin and flat structure. This unique configuration allows the majority of their constituent atoms to be accessible on the surface, facilitating easier electron tunneling while generating weak surface forces. To decipher the subtle signals inherent in these materials, the application of techniques that offer atomic resolution (horizontal) and sub-Angstrom (z-height vertical) sensitivity is crucial. Scanning probe microscopy (SPM) emerges as the quintessential tool in this regard, owing to its atomic-level spatial precision, ability to detect unitary charges, responsiveness to pico-newton-scale forces, and capability to discern pico-ampere currents. Furthermore, the versatility of SPM to operate under varying environmental conditions, such as different temperatures and in the presence of various gases or liquids, opens up the possibility of studying the stability and reactivity of 2D materials in situ. The characteristic flatness, surface accessibility, ultra-thinness, and weak signal strengths of 2D materials align perfectly with the capabilities of SPM technologies, enabling researchers to uncover the nuanced behaviors and properties of these advanced materials at the nanoscale and even the atomic scale.

Nanometer-Resolved Operando Photo-Response of Faceted BiVO4 Semiconductor Nanoparticles

Photo(electro)catalysis with semiconducting nanoparticles (NPs) is an attractive approach to convert abundant but intermittent renewable electricity into stable chemical fuels. However, our understanding of the microscopic processes governing the performance of the materials has been hampered by the lack of operando characterization techniques with sufficient lateral resolution. Here, we demonstrate that the local surface potentials of NPs of bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) and their response to illumination differ between adjacent facets and depend strongly on the pH of the ambient electrolyte. The isoelectric points of the dominant {010} basal plane and the adjacent {110} side facets differ by 1.5 pH units. Upon illumination, both facets accumulate positive charges and display a maximum surface photoresponse of +55 mV, much stronger than reported in the literature for the surface photo voltage of BiVO4 NPs in air. High resolution images reveal the presence of numerous surface defects ranging from vacancies of a few atoms, to single unit cell steps, to microfacets of variable orientation and degree of disorder. These defects typically carry a highly localized negative surface charge density and display an opposite photoresponse compared to the adjacent facets. Strategies to model and optimize the performance of photocatalyst NPs, therefore, require an understanding of the distribution of surface defects, including the interaction with ambient electrolyte.

Visualizing Overall Water Splitting on Single Microcrystals of Phosphorus-Doped BiVO4 by Photo-SECM

Particulate bismuth vanadate (BiVO4) has attracted considerable interest as a promising photo(electro)catalyst for visible-light-driven water oxidation; however, overall water splitting (OWS) has been difficult to attain because its conduction band is too positive for efficient hydrogen evolution. Using photoscanning electrochemical microscopy (photo-SECM) with a chemically modified nanotip, we visualized for the first time the OWS at a single truncated bipyramidal microcrystal of phosphorus-doped BiVO4. The tip simultaneously served as a light guide to illuminate the photocatalyst and an electrochemical nanoprobe to observe and quantitatively measure local oxygen and hydrogen fluxes. The obtained current patterns for both O2 and H2 agree well with the accumulation of photogenerated electrons and holes on {010} basal and {110} lateral facets, respectively. The developed experimental approach is an important step toward nanoelectrochemical mapping of the activity of photocatalyst particles at the subfacet level.