Visualizing Single-Cell Secretion Dynamics with Single-Protein Sensitivity

Quantitative live-cell imaging of secretion activity reveals dynamic immune responses

Quantification of cytokine secretion has facilitated advances in the field of immunology, yet the dynamic and varied secretion profiles of individual cells, particularly those obtained from limited human samples, remain obscure. Herein, we introduce a technology for quantitative live-cell imaging of secretion activity (qLCI-S) that enables high-throughput and dual-color monitoring of secretion activity at the single-cell level over several days, followed by transcriptome analysis of individual cells based on their phenotype. The efficacy of qLCI-S was demonstrated by visualizing the characteristic temporal pattern of cytokine secretion of group 2 innate lymphoid cells, which constitute less than 0.01% of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells, and by revealing minor subpopulations with enhanced cytokine production. The underlying mechanism of this feature was linked to the gene expression of stimuli receptors. This technology paves the way for exploring gene expression signatures linked to the spatiotemporal dynamic nature of various secretory functions.

Two-color interferometric scattering (iSCAT) microscopy reveals structural dynamics in discrete plasmonic molecules

Plasmonic molecules are discrete assemblies of noble metal nanoparticles (NPs) that are of interest as transducers in optical nanosensors. So far, NPs with diameters of ∼40 nm have been the preferred building blocks for plasmonic molecules intended as optical single molecule sensors due to difficulties associated with detecting smaller NPs through elastic scattering in conventional darkfield microscopy. Here, we apply 405 nm, 445 nm two-color interferometric scattering (iSCAT) microscopy to characterize polyethylene glycol (PEG) tethered dimers of 10 nm and 20 nm Ag NPs and their monomers. Dimers of both NP sizes can be discerned from their respective monomers through changes in the average iSCAT contrast. In the case of 20 nm Ag NPs, dimer formation induces a change in the sign of the iSCAT contrast, providing a characteristic signal for detecting binding events. 20 nm Ag NP dimers with 0.4 kDa and 3.4 kDa polyethylene glycol (PEG) spacers show iSCAT contrast distributions with significantly different averages on both wavelength channels. The iSCAT contrast measured for individual PEG-tethered 10 nm or 20 nm NP dimers as a function of time shows contrast fluctuations indicative of a rich structural dynamics in the assembled plasmonic molecules, which provides an additional metric to discern dimers from monomers and paves the path to a new class of interferometric plasmon rulers.

Label-Free Tracking of Proteins through Plasmon-Enhanced Interference

Single unmodified biomolecules in solution can be observed and characterized by interferometric imaging approaches; however, Rayleigh scattering limits this to larger proteins (typically >30 kDa). We observe real-time image tracking of unmodified proteins down to 14 kDa using interference imaging enhanced by surface plasmons launched at an aperture in a metal film. The larger proteins show slower diffusion, quantified by tracking. When the diffusing protein is finally trapped by the nanoaperture, we perform complementary power spectral density and noise amplitude analysis, which gives information about the protein. This approach allows for rapid protein characterization with minimal sample preparation and opens the door to characterizing protein interactions in real time.

Real-Time Spatiotemporal Measurement of Extracellular Signaling Molecules Using an Aptamer Switch-Conjugated Hydrogel Matrix

Cells rely on secreted signaling molecules to coordinate essential biological functions including development, metabolism, and immunity. Unfortunately, such signaling processes remain difficult to measure with sufficient chemical specificity and temporal resolution. To address this need, an aptamer-conjugated hydrogel matrix that enables continuous fluorescent measurement of specific secreted analytes - in two dimensions, in real-time is developed. As a proof of concept, real-time imaging of inter-cellular cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cAMP) signals in Dictyostelium discoideum amoeba cells is performed. A set of aptamer switches that generate a rapid and reversible change in fluorescence in response to cAMP signals is engineered. By combining multiple switches with different dynamic ranges, measure cAMP concentrations spanning three orders of magnitude in a single experiment can be measured. These sensors are embedded within a biocompatible hydrogel on which cells are cultured and their cAMP secretions can be imaged using fluorescent microscopy. Using this aptamer-hydrogel material system, the first direct measurements of oscillatory cAMP signaling that correlate closely with previous indirect measurements are achieved. Using different aptamer switches, this approach can be generalized for measuring other secreted molecules to directly visualize diverse extracellular signaling processes and the biological effects that they trigger in recipient cells.

Two-Color iSCAT Imaging of Ag Nanoparticles Resolves Size and Ambient Refractive Index Changes

The ability to discern noble metal nanoparticles (NPs) with different sizes and in ambient media with different refractive indices has important applications in imaging and sensing. Here a two-color (405 nm, 445 nm) interferometric scattering (iSCAT) detection scheme is applied to characterize the wavelength-dependent iSCAT contrast of Ag NPs with nominal diameters of 10, 20, 40, and 60 nm and to distinguish between NPs of different sizes. The iSCAT contrast also depends on the ambient refractive index and the relative iSCAT contrast on both channels revealed a spectral red-shift for 40 and 60 nm Ag NPs when the ambient refractive index was increased from n = 1.3892 to n = 1.4328. With the selected wavelength channels, the spectral resolution of the two-color imaging strategy was, however, insufficient to resolve spectral shifts induced by refractive index changes for 10 and 20 nm Ag NPs.

Spatiotemporal dissection of tumor microenvironment via in situ sensing and monitoring in tumor-on-a-chip

Real-time monitoring in the tumor microenvironment provides critical insights of cancer progression and mechanistic understanding of responses to cancer treatments. However, clinical challenges and significant questions remain regarding assessment of limited clinical tissue samples, establishment of validated, controllable pre-clinical cancer models, monitoring of static versus dynamic markers, and the translation of insights gained from in vitro tumor microenvironments to systematic investigation and understanding in clinical practice. State-of-art tumor-on-a-chip strategies will be reviewed herein, and emerging real-time sensing and monitoring platforms for on-chip analysis of tumor microenvironment will also be examined. The integration of the sensors with tumor-on-a-chip platforms to provide spatiotemporal information of the tumor microenvironment and the associated challenges will be further evaluated. Though optimal integrated systems for in situ monitoring are still in evolution, great promises lie ahead that will open new paradigm for rapid, comprehensive analysis of cancer development and assist clinicians with powerful tools to guide the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment course in cancer.

Self-supervised machine learning pushes the sensitivity limit in label-free detection of single proteins below 10 kDa

Interferometric scattering (iSCAT) microscopy is a label-free optical method capable of detecting single proteins, localizing their binding positions with nanometer precision, and measuring their mass. In the ideal case, iSCAT is limited by shot noise such that collection of more photons should extend its detection sensitivity to biomolecules of arbitrarily low mass. However, a number of technical noise sources combined with speckle-like background fluctuations have restricted the detection limit in iSCAT. Here, we show that an unsupervised machine learning isolation forest algorithm for anomaly detection pushes the mass sensitivity limit by a factor of 4 to below 10 kDa. We implement this scheme both with a user-defined feature matrix and a self-supervised FastDVDNet and validate our results with correlative fluorescence images recorded in total internal reflection mode. Our work opens the door to optical investigations of small traces of biomolecules and disease markers such as α-synuclein, chemokines and cytokines.

Optical Detection and Imaging of Nonfluorescent Matter at the Single-Molecule/Particle Level

Since the first optical detection of single molecules in 1989, single-molecule spectroscopy has developed rapidly and been widely applied in many areas. However, the vast majority of matter is extremely inefficient at emitting photons in our physical world, which seriously limits the applications of optical methods based on photoluminescence. In addition to indirect detection by fluorescence labeling, many efforts have been made to directly image nonfluorescent matter at the single-particle or single-molecule level in different ways based on the absorption or scattering interaction between light and matter. Herein, we review five popular methods for imaging nonfluorescent particles/molecules, including dark-field microscopy (DFM), surface plasmon resonance microscopy (SPRM), surface enhanced Raman microscopy (SERM), interferometric scattering microscopy (iSCAT), and photothermal microscopy (PTM). After summarizing the principles and applications of these methods, we compare the advantages and disadvantages of each method and describe further potential development and applications.

Optical Sensing Strategies for Probing Single-Cell Secretion

Measuring cell secretion events is crucial to understand the fundamental cell biology that underlies cell-cell communication, migration, proliferation, and differentiation. Although strategies targeting cell populations have provided significant information about live cell secretion, they yield ensemble profiles that obscure intrinsic cell-to-cell variations. Innovation in single-cell analysis has made breakthroughs allowing accurate sensing of a wide variety of secretions and their release dynamics with high spatiotemporal resolution. This perspective focuses on the power of single-cell protocols to revolutionize cell-secretion analysis by allowing real-time and real-space measurements on single live cell resolution. We begin by discussing recent progress on single-cell bioanalytical techniques, specifically optical sensing strategies such as fluorescence-, surface plasmon resonance-, and surface-enhanced Raman scattering-based strategies, capable of in situ real-time monitoring of single-cell released ions, metabolites, proteins, and vesicles. Single-cell sensing platforms which allow for high-throughput high-resolution analysis with enough accuracy are highlighted. Furthermore, we discuss remaining challenges that should be addressed to get a more comprehensive understanding of secretion biology. Finally, future opportunities and potential breakthroughs in secretome analysis that will arise as a result of further development of single-cell sensing approaches are discussed.

Label-free nanofluidic scattering microscopy of size and mass of single diffusing molecules and nanoparticles

Label-free characterization of single biomolecules aims to complement fluorescence microscopy in situations where labeling compromises data interpretation, is technically challenging or even impossible. However, existing methods require the investigated species to bind to a surface to be visible, thereby leaving a large fraction of analytes undetected. Here, we present nanofluidic scattering microscopy (NSM), which overcomes these limitations by enabling label-free, real-time imaging of single biomolecules diffusing inside a nanofluidic channel. NSM facilitates accurate determination of molecular weight from the measured optical contrast and of the hydrodynamic radius from the measured diffusivity, from which information about the conformational state can be inferred. Furthermore, we demonstrate its applicability to the analysis of a complex biofluid, using conditioned cell culture medium containing extracellular vesicles as an example. We foresee the application of NSM to monitor conformational changes, aggregation and interactions of single biomolecules, and to analyze single-cell secretomes.

Nanofluidic scattering microscopy enables label-free, quantitative measurements of the molecular weight and hydrodynamic radius of biological molecules and nanoparticles freely diffusing inside a nanofluidic channel.

Scattering-based Light Microscopy: From Metal Nanoparticles to Single Proteins

Our ability to detect, image, and quantify nanoscopic objects and molecules with visible light has undergone dramatic improvements over the past few decades. While fluorescence has historically been the go-to contrast mechanism for ultrasensitive light microscopy due to its superior background suppression and specificity, recent developments based on light scattering have reached single-molecule sensitivity. They also have the advantages of universal applicability and the ability to obtain information about the species of interest beyond its presence and location. Many of the recent advances are driven by novel approaches to illumination, detection, and background suppression, all aimed at isolating and maximizing the signal of interest. Here, we review these developments grouped according to the basic principles used, namely darkfield imaging, interferometric detection, and surface plasmon resonance microscopy.

The Potential of OMICs Technologies for the Treatment of Immune-Mediated Inflammatory Diseases

Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs), such as inflammatory bowel diseases and inflammatory arthritis (e.g., rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis), are marked by increasing worldwide incidence rates. Apart from irreversible damage of the affected tissue, the systemic nature of these diseases heightens the incidence of cardiovascular insults and colitis-associated neoplasia. Only 40–60% of patients respond to currently used standard-of-care immunotherapies. In addition to this limited long-term effectiveness, all current therapies have to be given on a lifelong basis as they are unable to specifically reprogram the inflammatory process and thus achieve a true cure of the disease. On the other hand, the development of various OMICs technologies is considered as “the great hope” for improving the treatment of IMIDs. This review sheds light on the progressive development and the numerous approaches from basic science that gradually lead to the transfer from “bench to bedside” and the implementation into general patient care procedures.

Label-free, mass-sensitive single-molecule imaging using interferometric scattering microscopy

Single-molecule imaging has mostly been restricted to the use of fluorescence labelling as a contrast mechanism due to its superior ability to visualise molecules of interest on top of an overwhelming background of other molecules. Recently, interferometric scattering (iSCAT) microscopy has demonstrated the detection and imaging of single biomolecules based on light scattering without the need for fluorescent labels. Significant improvements in measurement sensitivity combined with a dependence of scattering signal on object size have led to the development of mass photometry, a technique that measures the mass of individual molecules and thereby determines mass distributions of biomolecule samples in solution. The experimental simplicity of mass photometry makes it a powerful tool to analyse biomolecular equilibria quantitatively with low sample consumption within minutes. When used for label-free imaging of reconstituted or cellular systems, the strict size-dependence of the iSCAT signal enables quantitative measurements of processes at size scales reaching from single-molecule observations during complex assembly up to mesoscopic dynamics of cellular components and extracellular protrusions. In this review, I would like to introduce the principles of this emerging imaging technology and discuss examples that show how mass-sensitive iSCAT can be used as a strong complement to other routine techniques in biochemistry.

Measuring single-cell protein secretion in immunology: Technologies, advances, and applications

The dynamics, nature, strength, and ultimately protective capabilities of an active immune response are determined by the extracellular constitution and concentration of various soluble factors. Generated effector cells secrete such mediators, including antibodies, chemo‐ and cytokines to achieve functionality. These secreted factors organize the individual immune cells into functional tissues, initiate, orchestrate, and regulate the immune response. Therefore, a single‐cell resolved analysis of protein secretion is a valuable tool for studying the heterogeneity and functionality of immune cells. This review aims to provide a comparative overview of various methods to characterize immune reactions by measuring single‐cell protein secretion. Spot‐based and cytometry‐based assays, such as ELISpot and flow cytometry, respectively, are well‐established methods applied in basic research and clinical settings. Emerging novel technologies, such as microfluidic platforms, offer new ways to measure and exploit protein secretion in immune reactions. Further technological advances will allow the deciphering of protein secretion in immunological responses with unprecedented detail, linking secretion to functionality. Here, we summarize the development and recent advances of tools that allow the analysis of protein secretion at the single‐cell level, and discuss and contrast their applications within immunology.

High-Precision Protein-Tracking With Interferometric Scattering Microscopy

The mobility of proteins and lipids within the cell, sculpted oftentimes by the organization of the membrane, reveals a great wealth of information on the function and interaction of these molecules as well as the membrane itself. Single particle tracking has proven to be a vital tool to study the mobility of individual molecules and unravel details of their behavior. Interferometric scattering (iSCAT) microscopy is an emerging technique well-suited for visualizing the diffusion of gold nanoparticle-labeled membrane proteins to a spatial and temporal resolution beyond the means of traditional fluorescent labels. We discuss the applicability of interferometric single particle tracking (iSPT) microscopy to investigate the minutia in the motion of a protein through measurements visualizing the mobility of the epidermal growth factor receptor in various biological scenarios on the live cell.

Label-Free Plasmonic Detection of Untethered Nanometer-Sized Brownian Particles

Optical detection of individual nanometer-sized analytes, virus particles, and protein molecules holds great promise for understanding and control of biological samples and healthcare applications. As fluorescent labels impose restrictions on detection bandwidth and require lengthy and invasive processes, label-free optical techniques are highly desirable. Here, we introduce an optical technique capable of transforming gold nanorods commonly used as photostable labels into highly localized high-speed probes. Our method detects single untethered 5 nm diameter gold particles as they traverse subattoliter volumes in Brownian motion with a time resolution below microseconds.

Microfluidic Immunoassays for Time-Resolved Measurement of Protein Secretion from Single Cells

Measurement of humoral factors secreted from cells has served as an indispensable method to monitor the states of a cell ensemble because humoral factors play crucial roles in cell-cell interaction and aptly reflect the states of individual cells. Although a cell ensemble consisting of a large number of cells has conventionally been the object of such measurements, recent advances in microfluidic technology together with highly sensitive immunoassays have enabled us to quantify secreted humoral factors even from individual cells in either a population or a temporal context. Many groups have reported various miniaturized platforms for immunoassays of proteins secreted from single cells. This review focuses on the current status of time-resolved assay platforms for protein secretion with single-cell resolution. We also discuss future perspectives of time-resolved immunoassays from the viewpoint of systems biology.

Interferometric Scattering Microscopy: Seeing Single Nanoparticles and Molecules via Rayleigh Scattering

Fluorescence microscopy has been the workhorse for investigating optical phenomena at the nanometer scale but this approach confronts several fundamental limits. As a result, there have been a growing number of activities toward the development of fluorescent-free imaging methods. In this Mini Review, we demonstrate that elastic scattering, the most ubiquitous and oldest optical contrast mechanism, offers excellent opportunities for sensitive detection and imaging of nanoparticles and molecules at very high spatiotemporal resolution. We present interferometric scattering (iSCAT) microscopy as the method of choice, explain its theoretical foundation, discuss its experimental nuances, elaborate on its deep connection to bright-field imaging and other established microscopies, and discuss its promise as well as challenges. A showcase of numerous applications and avenues made possible by iSCAT demonstrates its rapidly growing impact on various disciplines concerned with nanoscopic phenomena.

Localized detection of ions and biomolecules with a force-controlled scanning nanopore microscope

Proteins, nucleic acids and ions secreted from single cells are the key signalling factors that determine the interaction of cells with their environment and the neighbouring cells. It is possible to study individual ion channels by pipette clamping, but it is difficult to dynamically monitor the activity of ion channels and transporters across the cellular membrane. Here we show that a solid-state nanopore integrated in an atomic force microscope can be used for the stochastic sensing of secreted molecules and the activity of ion channels in arbitrary locations both inside and outside a cell. The translocation of biomolecules and ions through the nanopore is observed in real time in live cells. The versatile nature of this approach allows us to detect specific biomolecules under controlled mechanical confinement and to monitor the ion-channel activities of single cells. Moreover, the nanopore microscope was used to image the surface of the nuclear membrane via high-resolution scanning ion conductance measurements.

Label-free detection of nanoparticles using depth scanning correlation interferometric microscopy

Single particle level visualization of biological nanoparticles such as viruses and exosomes is challenging due to their small size and low dielectric contrast. Fluorescence based methods are highly preferred, however they require labelling which may perturb the functionality of the particle of interest. On the other hand, wide-field interferometric microscopy can be used to detect sub-diffraction limited nanoparticles without using any labels. Here we demonstrate that utilization of defocused images enhances the visibility of nanoparticles in interferometric microscopy and thus improves the detectable size limit. With the proposed method termed as Depth Scanning Correlation (DSC) Interferometric Microscopy, we experimentally demonstrate the detection of sub-35nm dielectric particles without using any labels. Furthermore, we demonstrate direct detection of single exosomes. This label-free and high throughput nanoparticle detection technique can be used to sense and characterize biological particles over a range between a few tens to a few hundred nanometers, where conventional methods are insufficient.

Interferometric Scattering Enables Fluorescence-Free Electrokinetic Trapping of Single Nanoparticles in Free Solution

Anti-Brownian traps confine single particles in free solution by closed-loop feedback forces that directly counteract Brownian motion. Extended-duration measurements on trapped objects allow detailed characterization of photophysical and transport properties as well as observation of infrequent or rare dynamics. However, this approach has been generally limited to particles that can be tracked by fluorescence emission. Here we present the Interferometric Scattering Anti-Brownian ELectrokinetic (ISABEL) trap, which uses interferometric scattering rather than fluorescence to monitor particle position. By decoupling the ability to track (and therefore trap) a particle from collection of its spectroscopic data, the ISABEL trap enables confinement and extended study of single particles that do not fluoresce, only weakly fluoresce, or exhibit intermittent fluorescence or photobleaching. This new technique significantly expands the range of nanoscale objects that may be investigated at the single-particle level in free solution.

Cytoplasmic Protein Imaging with Mid-Infrared Photothermal Microscopy: Cellular Dynamics of Live Neurons and Oligodendrocytes

Mid-infrared photothermal microscopy has been suggested as an alternative to conventional infrared microscopy because in addition to the inherent chemical contrast available upon vibrational excitation, it can feasibly achieve spatial resolution at the submicrometer level. Furthermore, it has substantial potential for real-time bioimaging for the observation of cellular dynamics without photodamage or photobleaching of fluorescent labels. We performed real-time imaging of oligodendrocytes to investigate cellular dynamics throughout the life cycle of a cell, revealing details of cell division and apoptosis, as well as cellular migration. In the case of live neurons, we observed a photothermal contrast associated with traveling protein complexes on an axon, which correspond to the transport of vesicles from the cell body to the dendritic branches of the neuron through the cytoskeleton. We anticipate that mid-infrared photothermal imaging will be of great use for gaining insights into the field of biophysical science, especially with regard to cellular dynamics and functions.

Intensity-modulated nanoplasmonic interferometric sensor for MMP-9 detection

To elucidate the secretary function of immune cells, we develop a nanoplasmonic circular interferometric biosensor based on intensity interrogation for label-free and dynamic sensing of molecular secretion. Exceptional sensitivity has been demonstrated through coupling free light and surface plasmon polariton (SPPs) waves, which generates a constructive and deconstructive interference pattern with high contrast and narrow linewidth when illuminated by white light. Alternatively, by adopting a narrow-band LED source and a CCD camera in this work, the transmission intensity of multiple sensing units is monitored simultaneously with a simple collinear optical setup. This intensity-modulated sensing platform yields a resolution of 4.1 × 10-5 refractive index unit (RIU) with a high temporal resolution of 1 s and a miniaturized footprint as small as 9.8 × 9.8 μm2 for a single sensing unit. By integrating the signals from multiple sensor units, the resolution of a 12 × 12 sensor array was found to reach 7.3 × 10-6 RIU. We apply this sensor array to detect matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9) secretion from human monocytic cells, THP-1, at different time points after lipopolysaccharide (LPS) simulation and the results are in good agreement with enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) tests, but without the need for labeling. The spatial, temporal and mass resolutions of the sensor array are found to exceed other label-free technologies. These biomolecular arrays, incorporated in a microfluidic sensor platform, hold great potential for the study the dynamics and interplay of cell secretion signals and achieving a better understanding of single cell functions.

High-speed imaging and tracking of very small single nanoparticles by contrast enhanced microscopy

Nanoparticles have been used extensively in biology-related research and many applications require direct visualization of individual nanoparticles by optical microscopy. For long-term and high-speed measurements, scattering-based microscopy is a unique technique because of the stable and indefinite scattering signals. In scattering-based single-particle measurements, large nanoparticles are usually needed in order to generate sufficient signals for detection. However, larger nanoparticles introduce greater mass loading, experience stronger steric hindrance, and are more prone to crosslinking. In this work, we demonstrate coherent brightfield (COBRI) microscopy with enhanced contrast and show its capability of direct visualization of very small nanoparticles in scattering at a high speed. COBRI microscopy allows us to visualize and track single metallic and dielectric nanoparticles, as small as 10 nm, at 1000 frames per second. A quantitative relationship between the linear scattering cross section of the nanoparticle and its COBRI contrast is reported. Using COBRI microscopy, we further demonstrate the tracking of 10 nm gold nanoparticles labeled to lipid molecules in supported bilayer membranes, showing that the small nanoparticles may facilitate single-molecule measurements with reduced perturbation. Furthermore, the identical imaging sensitivities of COBRI and interferometric scattering (iSCAT) microscopy, the reflection counterpart of COBRI, is demonstrated at an equal illumination intensity. Finally, future improvements in the speed and sensitivity of scattering-based interference microscopy are discussed.

Quantifying single-cell secretion in real time using resonant hyperspectral imaging

Cell communication is primarily regulated by secreted proteins, whose inhomogeneous secretion often indicates physiological disorder. Parallel monitoring of innate protein-secretion kinetics from individual cells is thus crucial to unravel systemic malfunctions. Here, we report a label-free, high-throughput method for parallel, in vitro, and real-time analysis of specific single-cell signaling using hyperspectral photonic crystal resonant technology. Heterogeneity in physiological thrombopoietin expression from individual HepG2 liver cells in response to platelet desialylation was quantified demonstrating how mapping real-time protein secretion can provide a simple, yet powerful approach for studying complex physiological systems regulating protein production at single-cell resolution.

A New Fluorogenic Small-Molecule Labeling Tool for Surface Diffusion Analysis and Advanced Fluorescence Imaging of β-Site Amyloid Precursor Protein-Cleaving Enzyme 1 Based on Silicone Rhodamine: SiR-BACE1

β-site APP-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) is a major player in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Structural and functional fluorescence microscopy offers a powerful approach to learn about the physiology and pathophysiology of this protease. Up to now, however, common labeling techniques require genetic manipulation, use large antibodies, or are not compatible with live cell imaging. Fluorescent small molecules that specifically bind to the protein of interest can overcome these limitations. Herein, we introduce SiR-BACE1, a conjugate of the BACE1 inhibitor S-39 and SiR647, as a novel fluorogenic, tag-free, and antibody-free label for BACE1. We present its chemical development, characterize its photophysical and pharmacologic properties, and evaluate its behavior in solution, in overexpression systems, and in native brain tissue. We demonstrate its applicability in confocal, stimulated emission depletion and dynamic single-molecule microscopy. The first functional studies with SiR-BACE1 on the surface mobility of BACE1 revealed a markedly confined diffusion pattern.

Microfluidic Chip with Integrated Electrophoretic Immunoassay for Investigating Cell-Cell Interactions

Microfluidics have been used to create "body-on-chip" systems to mimic in vivo cellular interactions with a high level of control. Most such systems rely on optical observation of cells as a readout. In this work we integrated a cell-cell interaction chip with online microchip electrophoresis immunoassay to monitor the effects of the interaction on protein secretion dynamics. The system was used to investigate the effects of adipocytes on insulin secretion. Chips were loaded with 190 000 3T3-L1 adipocytes and a single islet of Langerhans in separate chambers. The chambers were perfused at 300-600 nL/min so that adipocyte secretions flowed over the islets for 3 h. Adipocytes produced 80 μM of nonesterified fatty acids (NEFAs), a factor known to impact insulin secretion, at the islets. After perfusion, islets were challenged with a step change in glucose from 3 to 11 mM while monitoring insulin secretion at 8 s intervals by online immunoassay. Adipocyte treatment augmented insulin secretion by 6-fold compared to controls. The effect was far greater than comparable concentrations of NEFA applied to the islets demonstrating that adipocytes release multiple factors that can strongly potentiate insulin secretion. The experiments reveal that integration of chemical analysis with cell-cell interaction can provide valuable insights into cellular functions.