1
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Zheng H, Cheung LY, Sangwan N, Kononov A, Haller R, Ridderbos J, Ciaccia C, Ungerer JH, Li A, Bakkers EP, Baumgartner A, Schönenberger C. Coherent Control of a Few-Channel Hole Type Gatemon Qubit. NANO LETTERS 2024; 24:7173-7179. [PMID: 38848282 PMCID: PMC11194827 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.4c00770] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/09/2024]
Abstract
Gatemon qubits are the electrically tunable cousins of superconducting transmon qubits. In this work, we demonstrate the full coherent control of a gatemon qubit based on hole carriers in a Ge/Si core/shell nanowire, with the longest coherence times in group IV material gatemons to date. The key to these results is a high-quality Josephson junction obtained using a straightforward and reproducible annealing technique. We demonstrate that the transport through the narrow junction is dominated by only two quantum channels, with transparencies up to unity. This novel qubit platform holds great promise for quantum information applications, not only because it incorporates technologically relevant materials, but also because it provides new opportunities, like an ultrastrong spin-orbit coupling in the few-channel regime of Josephson junctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Zheng
- Quantum-
and Nanoelectronics Lab, Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Luk Yi Cheung
- Quantum-
and Nanoelectronics Lab, Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Nikunj Sangwan
- Quantum-
and Nanoelectronics Lab, Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Artem Kononov
- Quantum-
and Nanoelectronics Lab, Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Roy Haller
- Quantum-
and Nanoelectronics Lab, Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Joost Ridderbos
- MESA+
Institute for Nanotechnology University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Carlo Ciaccia
- Quantum-
and Nanoelectronics Lab, Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jann Hinnerk Ungerer
- Quantum-
and Nanoelectronics Lab, Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Ang Li
- Department
of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University
of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Erik P.A.M. Bakkers
- Department
of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University
of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Andreas Baumgartner
- Quantum-
and Nanoelectronics Lab, Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss
Nanoscience Institute, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Schönenberger
- Quantum-
and Nanoelectronics Lab, Department of Physics, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
- Swiss
Nanoscience Institute, University of Basel, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
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2
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Badawy G, Bakkers EPAM. Electronic Transport and Quantum Phenomena in Nanowires. Chem Rev 2024; 124:2419-2440. [PMID: 38394689 PMCID: PMC10941195 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.3c00656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 02/08/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Nanowires are natural one-dimensional channels and offer new opportunities for advanced electronic quantum transport experiments. We review recent progress on the synthesis of nanowires and methods for the fabrication of hybrid semiconductor/superconductor systems. We discuss methods to characterize their electronic properties in the context of possible future applications such as topological and spin qubits. We focus on group III-V (InAs and InSb) and group IV (Ge/Si) semiconductors, since these are the most developed, and give an outlook on other potential materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghada Badawy
- Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Erik P. A. M. Bakkers
- Department of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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3
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Johnson BC, Stuiber M, Creedon DL, Bose M, Berhane A, Willems van Beveren LH, Rubanov S, Cole JH, Mourik V, Hamilton AR, Duty TL, McCallum JC. Silicon-Aluminum Phase-Transformation-Induced Superconducting Rings. NANO LETTERS 2023; 23:17-24. [PMID: 36573935 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.2c02814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The development of devices that exhibit both superconducting and semiconducting properties is an important endeavor for emerging quantum technologies. We investigate superconducting nanowires fabricated on a silicon-on-insulator (SOI) platform. Aluminum from deposited contact electrodes is found to interdiffuse with Si along the entire length of the nanowire, over micrometer length scales and at temperatures well below the Al-Si eutectic. The phase-transformed material is conformal with the predefined device patterns. The superconducting properties of a transformed mesoscopic ring formed on a SOI platform are investigated. Low-temperature magnetoresistance oscillations, quantized in units of the fluxoid, h/2e, are observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brett C Johnson
- School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria3001, Australia
| | - Michael Stuiber
- Melbourne Centre for Nanofabrication, Clayton, Victoria3168, Australia
| | - Daniel L Creedon
- School of Physics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria3010, Australia
| | - Manjith Bose
- School of Physics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria3010, Australia
| | - Amanuel Berhane
- School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales1466, Australia
| | | | - Sergey Rubanov
- Ian Holmes Imaging Centre, Bio21 Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria3010, Australia
| | - Jared H Cole
- School of Science, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria3001, Australia
| | - Vincent Mourik
- School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales1466, Australia
| | - Alexander R Hamilton
- School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales1466, Australia
| | - Timothy L Duty
- School of Physics, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales1466, Australia
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4
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Malkoc O, Stano P, Loss D. Charge-Noise-Induced Dephasing in Silicon Hole-Spin Qubits. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2022; 129:247701. [PMID: 36563265 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.129.247701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Revised: 09/27/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
We investigate, theoretically, charge-noise-induced spin dephasing of a hole confined in a quasi-two-dimensional silicon quantum dot. Central to our treatment is accounting for higher-order corrections to the Luttinger Hamiltonian. Using experimentally reported parameters, we find that the new terms give rise to sweet spots for the hole-spin dephasing, which are sensitive to device details: dot size and asymmetry, growth direction, and applied magnetic and electric fields. Furthermore, we estimate that the dephasing time at the sweet spots is boosted by several orders of magnitude, up to on the order of milliseconds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ognjen Malkoc
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science, Wako-shi, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
| | - Peter Stano
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science, Wako-shi, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Institute of Physics, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 845 11 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Daniel Loss
- RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science, Wako-shi, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- RIKEN Center for Quantum Computing, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, CH-4056 Basel, Switzerland
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5
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Delaforce J, Sistani M, Kramer RBG, Luong MA, Roch N, Weber WM, den Hertog MI, Robin E, Naud C, Lugstein A, Buisson O. Al-Ge-Al Nanowire Heterostructure: From Single-Hole Quantum Dot to Josephson Effect. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2021; 33:e2101989. [PMID: 34365674 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202101989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Superconductor-semiconductor-superconductor heterostructures are attractive for both fundamental studies of quantum phenomena in low-dimensional hybrid systems as well as for future high-performance low power dissipating nanoelectronic and quantum devices. In this work, ultrascaled monolithic Al-Ge-Al nanowire heterostructures featuring monocrystalline Al leads and abrupt metal-semiconductor interfaces are used to probe the low-temperature transport in intrinsic Ge (i-Ge) quantum dots. In particular, demonstrating the ability to tune the Ge quantum dot device from completely insulating, through a single-hole-filling quantum dot regime, to a supercurrent regime, resembling a Josephson field effect transistor with a maximum critical current of 10 nA at a temperature of 390 mK. The realization of a Josephson field-effect transistor with high junction transparency provides a mechanism to study sub-gap transport mediated by Andreev states. The presented results reveal a promising intrinsic Ge-based architecture for hybrid superconductor-semiconductor devices for the study of Majorana zero modes and key components of quantum computing such as gatemons or gate tunable superconducting quantum interference devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jovian Delaforce
- Institut NEEL UPR2940, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble, 38042, France
| | - Masiar Sistani
- Institute of Solid State Electronics, TU Wien, Gußhausstraße 25-25a, Vienna, 1040, Austria
| | - Roman B G Kramer
- Institut NEEL UPR2940, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble, 38042, France
| | - Minh A Luong
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG-DEPHY, F-38054, Grenoble, 38054, France
| | - Nicolas Roch
- Institut NEEL UPR2940, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble, 38042, France
| | - Walter M Weber
- Institute of Solid State Electronics, TU Wien, Gußhausstraße 25-25a, Vienna, 1040, Austria
| | | | - Eric Robin
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, IRIG-DEPHY, F-38054, Grenoble, 38054, France
| | - Cecile Naud
- Institut NEEL UPR2940, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble, 38042, France
| | - Alois Lugstein
- Institute of Solid State Electronics, TU Wien, Gußhausstraße 25-25a, Vienna, 1040, Austria
| | - Olivier Buisson
- Institut NEEL UPR2940, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, Grenoble, 38042, France
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6
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Epitaxial Growth of Ordered In-Plane Si and Ge Nanowires on Si (001). NANOMATERIALS 2021; 11:nano11030788. [PMID: 33808713 PMCID: PMC8003543 DOI: 10.3390/nano11030788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2021] [Revised: 03/14/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Controllable growth of wafer-scale in-plane nanowires (NWs) is a prerequisite for achieving addressable and scalable NW-based quantum devices. Here, by introducing molecular beam epitaxy on patterned Si structures, we demonstrate the wafer-scale epitaxial growth of site-controlled in-plane Si, SiGe, and Ge/Si core/shell NW arrays on Si (001) substrate. The epitaxially grown Si, SiGe, and Ge/Si core/shell NW are highly homogeneous with well-defined facets. Suspended Si NWs with four {111} facets and a side width of about 25 nm are observed. Characterizations including high resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) confirm the high quality of these epitaxial NWs.
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7
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Han J, Zhang A, Chen M, Gao W, Jiang Q. Giant Rashba splitting in one-dimensional atomic tellurium chains. NANOSCALE 2020; 12:10277-10283. [PMID: 32363363 DOI: 10.1039/d0nr00443j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The search for a one-dimensional (1D) system with purely 1D bands and strong Rashba spin splitting is essential for the realization of Majorana fermions and spin transport but presents a fundamental challenge to date. Herein, using first-principles calculations, we demonstrated that atomic Tellurium (Te) chains exhibit purely 1D bands and giant Rashba spin splitting, and their splitting parameters depend strongly on strain and structure distortion. This phenomenon stems from the helical structure of atomic Te chains, which can not only sustain significant strain but also realize the synergy of orbital angular momentum and in-chain potential gradient in enhancing spin splitting. The structure distortion of stretched helical Te chains is critical to execute this synergy, generating a large Rashba spin splitting among the known systems. Our findings proposed a potential 1D giant Rashba splitting system for exploring spintronics and Majorana fermions, and provide routes for engineering spin splitting in other materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Han
- Key Laboratory of Automobile Materials, Ministry of Education, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Jilin University 130022, Changchun, China.
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8
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Gao F, Wang JH, Watzinger H, Hu H, Rančić MJ, Zhang JY, Wang T, Yao Y, Wang GL, Kukučka J, Vukušić L, Kloeffel C, Loss D, Liu F, Katsaros G, Zhang JJ. Site-Controlled Uniform Ge/Si Hut Wires with Electrically Tunable Spin-Orbit Coupling. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2020; 32:e1906523. [PMID: 32105375 DOI: 10.1002/adma.201906523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Semiconductor nanowires have been playing a crucial role in the development of nanoscale devices for the realization of spin qubits, Majorana fermions, single photon emitters, nanoprocessors, etc. The monolithic growth of site-controlled nanowires is a prerequisite toward the next generation of devices that will require addressability and scalability. Here, combining top-down nanofabrication and bottom-up self-assembly, the growth of Ge wires on prepatterned Si (001) substrates with controllable position, distance, length, and structure is reported. This is achieved by a novel growth process that uses a SiGe strain-relaxation template and can be potentially generalized to other material combinations. Transport measurements show an electrically tunable spin-orbit coupling, with a spin-orbit length similar to that of III-V materials. Also, charge sensing between quantum dots in closely spaced wires is observed, which underlines their potential for the realization of advanced quantum devices. The reported results open a path toward scalable qubit devices using nanowires on silicon.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Gao
- National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics and Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Topological Quantum Computation and School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jian-Huan Wang
- National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics and Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Topological Quantum Computation and School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Hannes Watzinger
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Am Campus 1, Klosterneuburg, 3400, Austria
| | - Hao Hu
- Frontier Institute of Science and Technology, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, 710054, China
| | - Marko J Rančić
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, Basel, CH-4056, Switzerland
| | - Jie-Yin Zhang
- National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics and Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Topological Quantum Computation and School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Ting Wang
- National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics and Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Topological Quantum Computation and School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
- Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan, Guangdong, 523808, China
| | - Yuan Yao
- National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics and Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
| | - Gui-Lei Wang
- Institute of Microelectronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Josip Kukučka
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Am Campus 1, Klosterneuburg, 3400, Austria
| | - Lada Vukušić
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Am Campus 1, Klosterneuburg, 3400, Austria
| | - Christoph Kloeffel
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, Basel, CH-4056, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Loss
- Department of Physics, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 82, Basel, CH-4056, Switzerland
| | - Feng Liu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, 84112, USA
| | - Georgios Katsaros
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, Am Campus 1, Klosterneuburg, 3400, Austria
| | - Jian-Jun Zhang
- National Laboratory for Condensed Matter Physics and Institute of Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100190, China
- CAS Center for Excellence in Topological Quantum Computation and School of Physics, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
- Songshan Lake Materials Laboratory, Dongguan, Guangdong, 523808, China
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9
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Ridderbos J, Brauns M, de Vries FK, Shen J, Li A, Kölling S, Verheijen MA, Brinkman A, van der Wiel WG, Bakkers EPAM, Zwanenburg FA. Hard Superconducting Gap and Diffusion-Induced Superconductors in Ge-Si Nanowires. NANO LETTERS 2020; 20:122-130. [PMID: 31771328 PMCID: PMC6953474 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.9b03438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
We show a hard superconducting gap in a Ge-Si nanowire Josephson transistor up to in-plane magnetic fields of 250 mT, an important step toward creating and detecting Majorana zero modes in this system. A hard gap requires a highly homogeneous tunneling heterointerface between the superconducting contacts and the semiconducting nanowire. This is realized by annealing devices at 180 °C during which aluminum interdiffuses and replaces the germanium in a section of the nanowire. Next to Al, we find a superconductor with lower critical temperature (TC = 0.9 K) and a higher critical field (BC = 0.9-1.2 T). We can therefore selectively switch either superconductor to the normal state by tuning the temperature and the magnetic field and observe that the additional superconductor induces a proximity supercurrent in the semiconducting part of the nanowire even when the Al is in the normal state. In another device where the diffusion of Al rendered the nanowire completely metallic, a superconductor with a much higher critical temperature (TC = 2.9 K) and critical field (BC = 3.4 T) is found. The small size of these diffusion-induced superconductors inside nanowires may be of special interest for applications requiring high magnetic fields in arbitrary direction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joost Ridderbos
- MESA
+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Matthias Brauns
- QuTech
and Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft
University of Technology, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Folkert K. de Vries
- MESA
+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Jie Shen
- QuTech
and Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft
University of Technology, 2600 GA Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Ang Li
- Department
of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University
of Technology, Postbox 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Sebastian Kölling
- Department
of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University
of Technology, Postbox 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel A. Verheijen
- Department
of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University
of Technology, Postbox 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Alexander Brinkman
- MESA
+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Wilfred G. van der Wiel
- MESA
+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Erik P. A. M. Bakkers
- Department
of Applied Physics, Eindhoven University
of Technology, Postbox 513, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Floris A. Zwanenburg
- MESA
+ Institute for Nanotechnology, University
of Twente, P.O. Box 217, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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10
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Vigneau F, Mizokuchi R, Zanuz DC, Huang X, Tan S, Maurand R, Frolov S, Sammak A, Scappucci G, Lefloch F, De Franceschi S. Germanium Quantum-Well Josephson Field-Effect Transistors and Interferometers. NANO LETTERS 2019; 19:1023-1027. [PMID: 30633528 DOI: 10.1021/acs.nanolett.8b04275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Hybrid superconductor-semiconductor structures attract increasing attention owing to a variety of potential applications in quantum computing devices. They can serve the realization of topological superconducting systems as well as gate-tunable superconducting quantum bits. Here, we combine a SiGe/Ge/SiGe quantum-well heterostructure hosting high-mobility two-dimensional holes and aluminum superconducting leads to realize prototypical hybrid devices, such as Josephson field-effect transistors (JoFETs) and superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs). We observe gate-controlled supercurrent transport with Ge channels as long as one micrometer and estimate the induced superconducting gap from tunnel spectroscopy measurements. Transmission electron microscopy reveals the diffusion of Ge into the Al contacts, whereas no Al is detected in the Ge channel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Vigneau
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INAC-Pheliqs , 38000 Grenoble , France
| | - Raisei Mizokuchi
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INAC-Pheliqs , 38000 Grenoble , France
| | - Dante Colao Zanuz
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INAC-Pheliqs , 38000 Grenoble , France
| | - Xuhai Huang
- Department of Physics and Astronomy , University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15260 , United States
| | - Susheng Tan
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering and Petersen Institute of NanoScience and Engineering , University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15260 , United States
| | - Romain Maurand
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INAC-Pheliqs , 38000 Grenoble , France
| | - Sergey Frolov
- Department of Physics and Astronomy , University of Pittsburgh , Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania 15260 , United States
| | - Amir Sammak
- QuTech and Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology Lorentzweg 1 , 2628 CJ Delft , The Netherlands
- QuTech and TNO , Stieltjesweg 1 , 2628 CK Delft , The Netherlands
| | - Giordano Scappucci
- QuTech and Kavli Institute of Nanoscience, Delft University of Technology Lorentzweg 1 , 2628 CJ Delft , The Netherlands
| | - Francois Lefloch
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, INAC-Pheliqs , 38000 Grenoble , France
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