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Yu J, Liu T, Sun W, Zhang Y. Electrochemical Decarboxylative Elimination of Carboxylic Acids to Alkenes. Org Lett 2023; 25:7816-7821. [PMID: 37870311 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.3c02997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
An electrochemical strategy for the decarboxylative elimination of carboxylic acids to alkenes at room temperature has been developed. This mild and oxidant-free method provides a green alternative to traditional thermal decarboxylation reactions. Structurally diverse aliphatic carboxylic acids, including biologically active drugs, underwent smooth conversion to the corresponding alkenes in good to excellent yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiage Yu
- College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Teng Liu
- College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
| | - Wanhao Sun
- College of Food Science and Nutritional Engineering, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100871, P. R. China
| | - Yunfei Zhang
- College of Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, P. R. China
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2
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Garrido-Castro AF, Hioki Y, Kusumoto Y, Hayashi K, Griffin J, Harper KC, Kawamata Y, Baran PS. Scalable Electrochemical Decarboxylative Olefination Driven by Alternating Polarity. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2023; 62:e202309157. [PMID: 37656907 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202309157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2023] [Revised: 08/18/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
A mild, scalable (kg) metal-free electrochemical decarboxylation of alkyl carboxylic acids to olefins is disclosed. Numerous applications are presented wherein this transformation can simplify alkene synthesis and provide alternative synthetic access to valuable olefins from simple carboxylic acid feedstocks. This robust method relies on alternating polarity to maintain the quality of the electrode surface and local pH, providing a deeper understanding of the Hofer-Moest process with unprecedented chemoselectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto F Garrido-Castro
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
- Laboratorium für Organische Chemie, ETH Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 3, HCI, 8093, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Yuta Hioki
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
- Science and Innovation Center, Mitsubishi Chemical Corporation, 1000, Kamoshida-cho, Aoba-ku, Yokohama, Kanagawa 227-8502, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Kusumoto
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Kyohei Hayashi
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Jeremy Griffin
- AbbVie Process Research and Development, 1401 North Sheridan Road, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA
| | - Kaid C Harper
- AbbVie Process Research and Development, 1401 North Sheridan Road, North Chicago, IL, 60064, USA
| | - Yu Kawamata
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
| | - Phil S Baran
- Department of Chemistry, Scripps Research, 10550 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA, 92037, USA
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3
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Olding A, Ho CC, Lucas NT, Canty AJ, Bissember AC. Pretransmetalation Intermediates in Suzuki–Miyaura C–C and Carbonylative Cross-Couplings: Synthesis and Structural Authentication of Aryl- and Aroylnickel(II) Boronates. ACS Catal 2023. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.2c05657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Angus Olding
- School of Natural Sciences−Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
| | - Curtis C. Ho
- School of Natural Sciences−Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
| | - Nigel T. Lucas
- Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, Otago 9054, New Zealand
| | - Allan J. Canty
- School of Natural Sciences−Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
| | - Alex C. Bissember
- School of Natural Sciences−Chemistry, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania 7001, Australia
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4
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Haque FM, Ishibashi JSA, Lidston CAL, Shao H, Bates FS, Chang AB, Coates GW, Cramer CJ, Dauenhauer PJ, Dichtel WR, Ellison CJ, Gormong EA, Hamachi LS, Hoye TR, Jin M, Kalow JA, Kim HJ, Kumar G, LaSalle CJ, Liffland S, Lipinski BM, Pang Y, Parveen R, Peng X, Popowski Y, Prebihalo EA, Reddi Y, Reineke TM, Sheppard DT, Swartz JL, Tolman WB, Vlaisavljevich B, Wissinger J, Xu S, Hillmyer MA. Defining the Macromolecules of Tomorrow through Synergistic Sustainable Polymer Research. Chem Rev 2022; 122:6322-6373. [PMID: 35133803 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Transforming how plastics are made, unmade, and remade through innovative research and diverse partnerships that together foster environmental stewardship is critically important to a sustainable future. Designing, preparing, and implementing polymers derived from renewable resources for a wide range of advanced applications that promote future economic development, energy efficiency, and environmental sustainability are all central to these efforts. In this Chemical Reviews contribution, we take a comprehensive, integrated approach to summarize important and impactful contributions to this broad research arena. The Review highlights signature accomplishments across a broad research portfolio and is organized into four wide-ranging research themes that address the topic in a comprehensive manner: Feedstocks, Polymerization Processes and Techniques, Intended Use, and End of Use. We emphasize those successes that benefitted from collaborative engagements across disciplinary lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farihah M Haque
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Jacob S A Ishibashi
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Claire A L Lidston
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1801, United States
| | - Huiling Shao
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Frank S Bates
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Alice B Chang
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Geoffrey W Coates
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1801, United States
| | - Christopher J Cramer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Paul J Dauenhauer
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - William R Dichtel
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Christopher J Ellison
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Ethan A Gormong
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Leslie S Hamachi
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Thomas R Hoye
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Mengyuan Jin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Julia A Kalow
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Hee Joong Kim
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Gaurav Kumar
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Christopher J LaSalle
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Stephanie Liffland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Bryce M Lipinski
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1801, United States
| | - Yutong Pang
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Riffat Parveen
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, United States
| | - Xiayu Peng
- Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Yanay Popowski
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130-4899, United States
| | - Emily A Prebihalo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Yernaidu Reddi
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Theresa M Reineke
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Daylan T Sheppard
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Jeremy L Swartz
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - William B Tolman
- Department of Chemistry, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, Missouri 63130-4899, United States
| | - Bess Vlaisavljevich
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, United States
| | - Jane Wissinger
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Shu Xu
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
| | - Marc A Hillmyer
- Department of Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, United States
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O'Hair RAJ. ORGANOMETALLIC GAS-PHASE ION CHEMISTRY AND CATALYSIS: INSIGHTS INTO THE USE OF METAL CATALYSTS TO PROMOTE SELECTIVITY IN THE REACTIONS OF CARBOXYLIC ACIDS AND THEIR DERIVATIVES. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2021; 40:782-810. [PMID: 32965774 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Carboxylic acids are valuable organic substrates as they are widely available, easy to handle, and exhibit structural and functional variety. While they are used in many standard synthetic protocols, over the past two decades numerous studies have explored new modes of metal-mediated reactivity of carboxylic acids and their derivatives. Mass spectrometry-based studies can provide fundamental mechanistic insights into these new modes of reactivity. Here gas-phase models for the following catalytic transformations of carboxylic acids and their derivatives are reviewed: protodecarboxylation; dehydration; decarbonylation; reaction as coordinated bases in C-H bond activation; remote functionalization and decarboxylative C-C bond coupling. In each case the catalytic problem is defined, insights from gas-phase studies are highlighted, comparisons with condensed-phase systems are made and perspectives are reached. Finally, the potential role for mechanistic studies that integrate both gas- and condensed-phase studies is highlighted by recent studies on the discovery of new catalysts for the selective decomposition of formic acid and the invention of the new extrusion-insertion class of reactions for the synthesis of amides, thioamides, and amidines. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Mass Spec Rev.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard A J O'Hair
- School of Chemistry, University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
- Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology, The University of Melbourne, Victoria, 3010, Australia
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6
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Synthesis of Alpha Olefins: Catalytic Decarbonylation of Carboxylic Acids and Vegetable Oil Deodorizer Distillate (VODD). Catalysts 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/catal11080876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Decarbonylation of carboxylic acids provides an effective protocol for producing alpha olefins; however, previous literature has focused on the palladium-bisphosphine catalysts and has only sporadically studied the palladium-monophosphine catalyst. To investigate the catalytic activity of the palladium-monophosphine catalyst on decarbonylation of carboxylic acids, new monophosphine ligands were synthesized (NP-1, NP-2, CP-1 and CP-2). By employing (1–3 mol%) palladium-naphthylphosphine catalysts, various carboxylic acids were converted into corresponding alpha alkenes with good yields and selectivity within a short period of time. Vegetable oil deodorizer distillate (VODD), which is a by-product from the vegetable oil refinery process, was found to be rich in free fatty acids and there is great interest in turning vegetable oil deodorizer distillate into value-added compounds. It is noteworthy that our catalytic system could be applied to convert vegetable oil deodorizer distillate (VODD) into diesel-like hydrocarbons in a good yield.
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7
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziqiao Zhou
- National Engineering Laboratory for Methanol to Olefins, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, iChEM, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
| | - Hongchao Liu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Methanol to Olefins, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, iChEM, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, P.R. China
| | - Zhiyang Chen
- National Engineering Laboratory for Methanol to Olefins, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, iChEM, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
| | - Wenliang Zhu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Methanol to Olefins, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, iChEM, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, P.R. China
| | - Zhongmin Liu
- National Engineering Laboratory for Methanol to Olefins, Dalian National Laboratory for Clean Energy, iChEM, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Dalian 116023, P.R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P.R. China
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8
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Tian Y, Liu X, He B, Ren Y, Su W. A facile method for Rh-catalyzed decarbonylative ortho-C–H alkylation of (hetero)arenes with alkyl carboxylic acids. RSC Adv 2021; 11:19827-19831. [PMID: 35479217 PMCID: PMC9033830 DOI: 10.1039/d1ra03992j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A facile and effective method for Rh-catalyzed direct ortho-alkylation of C–H bonds in (hetero)arenes with commercially available carboxylic acids has been developed. This strategy was initiated by in situ conversion of carboxylic acids to anhydrides which, without isolation, underwent Rh-catalyzed direct decarbonylative cross-coupling of aryl carboxamides containing 8-aminoquinoline. The reaction proceeds with high regioselectivity and exhibits a broad substrate scope as well as functional group tolerance. A facile and effective method for Rh-catalyzed direct ortho-alkylation of C–H bonds in (hetero)arenes with commercially available carboxylic acids has been developed.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiqiang Tian
- College of Chemistry
- Fuzhou University
- Fuzhou 350116
- China
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry
| | - Xiaojie Liu
- College of Chemistry
- Fuzhou University
- Fuzhou 350116
- China
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry
| | - Bangyue He
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Fuzhou
| | - Yuxi Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Fuzhou
| | - Weiping Su
- State Key Laboratory of Structural Chemistry
- Center for Excellence in Molecular Synthesis
- Fujian Institute of Research on the Structure of Matter
- Chinese Academy of Sciences
- Fuzhou
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9
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Wiessner TC, Fosu SA, Parveen R, Rath NP, Vlaisavljevich B, Tolman WB. Ligand Effects on Decarbonylation of Palladium-Acyl Complexes. Organometallics 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.0c00584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tedd C. Wiessner
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Sustainable Polymers, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Hall, Campus Box
1134, St. Louis, Missouri 63130-4899, United States
| | - Samuel Asiedu Fosu
- University of South Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, United States
| | - Riffat Parveen
- University of South Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, United States
| | - Nigam P. Rath
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and Center for Nanoscience, University of Missouri—St. Louis, One University Boulevard, St. Louis, Missouri 63121, United States
| | - Bess Vlaisavljevich
- University of South Dakota, 414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, United States
| | - William B. Tolman
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Sustainable Polymers, Washington University in St. Louis, One Brookings Hall, Campus Box
1134, St. Louis, Missouri 63130-4899, United States
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10
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Cartwright KC, Joseph E, Comadoll CG, Tunge JA. Photoredox/Cobalt Dual‐Catalyzed Decarboxylative Elimination of Carboxylic Acids: Development and Mechanistic Insight. Chemistry 2020; 26:12454-12471. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.202001952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kaitie C. Cartwright
- Department of Chemistry The University of Kansas 1567 Irving Hill Rd. Lawrence KS 66045 USA
| | - Ebbin Joseph
- Department of Chemistry The University of Kansas 1567 Irving Hill Rd. Lawrence KS 66045 USA
| | - Chelsea G. Comadoll
- Department of Chemistry The University of Kansas 1567 Irving Hill Rd. Lawrence KS 66045 USA
| | - Jon A. Tunge
- Department of Chemistry The University of Kansas 1567 Irving Hill Rd. Lawrence KS 66045 USA
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11
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Tabandeh M, Cheng CK, Centi G, Show PL, Chen WH, Ling TC, Ong HC, Ng EP, Juan JC, Lam SS. Recent advancement in deoxygenation of fatty acids via homogeneous catalysis for biofuel production. MOLECULAR CATALYSIS 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mcat.2020.111207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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12
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Fehér PP, Stirling A. Theoretical Study on the Formation of Ni(PR 3)(Aryl)F Complexes Observed in Ni-Catalyzed Decarbonylative C–C Coupling of Acyl Fluorides. Organometallics 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.0c00387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Péter Pál Fehér
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
| | - András Stirling
- Research Centre for Natural Sciences, Magyar tudósok körútja 2, H-1117 Budapest, Hungary
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13
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Lu H, Yu TY, Xu PF, Wei H. Selective Decarbonylation via Transition-Metal-Catalyzed Carbon–Carbon Bond Cleavage. Chem Rev 2020; 121:365-411. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.0c00153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hong Lu
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China
| | - Tian-Yang Yu
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China
| | - Peng-Fei Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Hao Wei
- Key Laboratory of Synthetic and Natural Functional Molecule Chemistry of the Ministry of Education, College of Chemistry & Materials Science, Northwest University, Xi’an 710069, China
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14
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Clevenger AL, Stolley RM, Aderibigbe J, Louie J. Trends in the Usage of Bidentate Phosphines as Ligands in Nickel Catalysis. Chem Rev 2020; 120:6124-6196. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew L. Clevenger
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S 1400 E, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Ryan M. Stolley
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S 1400 E, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Justis Aderibigbe
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S 1400 E, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
| | - Janis Louie
- Department of Chemistry, University of Utah, 315 S 1400 E, Salt Lake City, Utah 84112, United States
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15
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16
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Hopen Eliasson SH, Jensen VR. Benefit of a hemilabile ligand in deoxygenation of fatty acids to 1-alkenes. Faraday Discuss 2019; 220:231-248. [PMID: 31508630 DOI: 10.1039/c9fd00037b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
One of the most important tasks for chemistry in our time is to contribute to sustainable chemical production. A green industrial process for linear α-olefins, the arguably most important class of petrochemical intermediates, from renewable resources would be a major contribution to this end. Plant oils are attractive renewable feedstocks for this purpose because their triglycerides can be hydrolyzed to fatty acids that contain valuable long-chain hydrocarbons (C16-C22). These hydrocarbons may, in turn, be converted to α-olefins by the deoxygenation of the fatty acids. For the most selective of these deoxygenation reactions, transition-metal catalyzed decarbonylative dehydration, the density functional theory (DFT) calculations have just started to offer valuable mechanistic insight, and the use of this insight in rational catalyst design has been facilitated by the arrival of the first well-defined precatalyst for this reaction, Pd(cinnamyl)Cl(DPEphos) (1). Here, we present DFT calculations showing how, in 1, the hemilability of DPEphos, a classical P-O-P diphosphine, contributes to a low overall barrier and high α-selectivity. DPEphos facilitates decarbonylation by first switching from bidentate to monodentate binding to create a coordination site for CO. The recoordination of the dangling phosphine displaces the Pd-bound CO, a co-product that must leave the reactor for the reaction to proceed, and the escaping CO is here modelled using a low pressure in the calculation of its thermochemical corrections. Finally, the role of the hemilabile ligand suggests that further improvements in the decarbonylative dehydration of fatty acids to α-olefins might be achieved by exploring new, potentially asymmetric, hemilabile ligands.
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17
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Tao J, Yu W, Luo J, Wang T, Ge W, Zhang Z, Yang B, Xiong F. Na2CO3-promoted thioesterification via N–C bond cleavage of amides to construct thioester derivatives. JOURNAL OF CHEMICAL RESEARCH 2019. [DOI: 10.1177/1747519819873514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A mild, efficient, and transition-metal-free catalytic strategy is developed to construct thioesters via selective N–C bond cleavage of Boc2-activated primary amides. This strategy is successfully carried out with stoichiometric Na2CO3 as the base and provides the corresponding products in moderate to excellent yields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiasi Tao
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Weijie Yu
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Jin Luo
- Analytical and Testing Center, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Tao Wang
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Wanling Ge
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Ziwei Zhang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Bingjie Yang
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
| | - Fei Xiong
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
- National Research Center for Carbohydrate Synthesis and Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology of Jiangxi Province, Jiangxi Normal University, Nanchang, P.R. China
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18
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Bartalucci N, Bortoluzzi M, Zacchini S, Pampaloni G, Marchetti F. Straightforward formation of carbocations from tertiary carboxylic acids via CO release at room temperature. Dalton Trans 2019; 48:1574-1577. [PMID: 30525172 DOI: 10.1039/c8dt04416c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
We report an unprecedented mode of reactivity of carboxylic acids. A series of tertiary carboxylic acids, containing at least one phenyl α-substituent, undergo loss of carbon monoxide at room temperature (295 K), by a one pot reaction with 0.5-1 molar equivalents of WCl6 in dichloromethane. A plausible mechanism for the Ph3CCO2H/WCl6 reaction, leading to [CPh3][WOCl5] and Ph3CCl, is proposed on the basis of DFT calculations. The analogous reactions involving CEt(Ph)2CO2H, CMe(Ph)2CO2H and CMe2(Ph)CO2H selectively afforded stable hydrocarbons (alkene or indene, depending on the case), apparently resulting from the rearrangement of elusive tertiary carbocations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niccolò Bartalucci
- University of Pisa, Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Via Moruzzi 13, I-56124 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Marco Bortoluzzi
- University Ca' Foscari Venezia, Dipartimento di Scienze Molecolari e Nanosistemi, Via Torino 155, I-30170 Mestre, VE, Italy
| | - Stefano Zacchini
- University of Bologna, Dipartimento di Chimica Industriale "Toso Montanari", Viale Risorgimento 4, I-40136 Bologna, Italy
| | - Guido Pampaloni
- University of Pisa, Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Via Moruzzi 13, I-56124 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Fabio Marchetti
- University of Pisa, Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Via Moruzzi 13, I-56124 Pisa, Italy.
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19
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Sun X, Chen J, Ritter T. Catalytic dehydrogenative decarboxyolefination of carboxylic acids. Nat Chem 2018; 10:1229-1233. [DOI: 10.1038/s41557-018-0142-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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20
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Ortuño MA, López N. Creating Cavities at Palladium–Phosphine Interfaces for Enhanced Selectivity in Heterogeneous Biomass Conversion. ACS Catal 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.8b01302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Manuel A. Ortuño
- Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia, ICIQ, and the Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, BIST, Av. Països Catalans 16, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
| | - Núria López
- Institute of Chemical Research of Catalonia, ICIQ, and the Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, BIST, Av. Països Catalans 16, 43007 Tarragona, Spain
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21
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Meng G, Szostak M. N
‐Acyl‐Glutarimides: Privileged Scaffolds in Amide N–C Bond Cross‐Coupling. European J Org Chem 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ejoc.201800109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guangrong Meng
- Department of Chemistry Rutgers University 73 Warren Street 07102 Newark NJ United States
| | - Michal Szostak
- Department of Chemistry Rutgers University 73 Warren Street 07102 Newark NJ United States
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22
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Tlahuext-Aca A, Candish L, Garza-Sanchez RA, Glorius F. Decarboxylative Olefination of Activated Aliphatic Acids Enabled by Dual Organophotoredox/Copper Catalysis. ACS Catal 2018. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.7b04281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Tlahuext-Aca
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Lisa Candish
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - R. Aleyda Garza-Sanchez
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Frank Glorius
- Organisch-Chemisches Institut, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, Corrensstrasse 40, 48149 Münster, Germany
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23
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Ayudhya TI, Pellechia PJ, Dingra NN. ROS-mediated carbon monoxide and drug release from drug-conjugated carboxyboranes. Dalton Trans 2018; 47:538-543. [DOI: 10.1039/c7dt03581k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Dual nature of amine carboxyboranes for combined CO and drug delivery is facilitated by ROS.
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Affiliation(s)
- T. I. Ayudhya
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Alaska
- Anchorage
- USA
| | - P. J. Pellechia
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- University of South Carolina
- Columbia
- USA
| | - N. N. Dingra
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Alaska
- Anchorage
- USA
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24
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Lesslie M, Yang Y, Canty AJ, Piacentino E, Berthias F, Maitre P, Ryzhov V, O'Hair RAJ. Ligand-induced decarbonylation in diphosphine-ligated palladium acetates [CH3CO2Pd((PR2)2CH2)]+ (R = Me and Ph). Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:346-349. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cc08944a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Isotope labelling, IR spectroscopy and DFT calculations reveal a novel ligand-induced decarbonylation reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Lesslie
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- and Center for Biochemical and Biophysical Sciences
- Northern Illinois University
- DeKalb
- USA
| | - Yang Yang
- School of Chemistry
- Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology
- The University of Melbourne
- Victoria 3010
- Australia
| | - Allan J. Canty
- School of Physical Sciences
- University of Tasmania
- Hobart
- Australia
| | - Elettra Piacentino
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- and Center for Biochemical and Biophysical Sciences
- Northern Illinois University
- DeKalb
- USA
| | - Francis Berthias
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique
- Bâtiment 349
- Université Paris-Sud
- CNRS
- Université Paris-Saclay
| | - Philippe Maitre
- Laboratoire de Chimie Physique
- Bâtiment 349
- Université Paris-Sud
- CNRS
- Université Paris-Saclay
| | - Victor Ryzhov
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry
- and Center for Biochemical and Biophysical Sciences
- Northern Illinois University
- DeKalb
- USA
| | - Richard A. J. O'Hair
- School of Chemistry
- Bio21 Institute of Molecular Science and Biotechnology
- The University of Melbourne
- Victoria 3010
- Australia
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25
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Fieser ME, Schimler SD, Mitchell LA, Wilborn EG, John A, Hogan LT, Benson B, LaPointe AM, Tolman WB. Dual-catalytic decarbonylation of fatty acid methyl esters to form olefins. Chem Commun (Camb) 2018; 54:7669-7672. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cc03823f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The homogeneous dehydrative decarbonylation of fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs) to form olefins is reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E. Fieser
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Sustainable Polymers
- University of Minnesota
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | - Sydonie D. Schimler
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Sustainable Polymers
- University of Minnesota
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | - Lauren A. Mitchell
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Sustainable Polymers
- University of Minnesota
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | - Emily G. Wilborn
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Sustainable Polymers
- University of Minnesota
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | - Alex John
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Sustainable Polymers
- University of Minnesota
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | - Levi T. Hogan
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Sustainable Polymers
- University of Minnesota
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | - Brooke Benson
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Sustainable Polymers
- University of Minnesota
- Minneapolis
- USA
| | - Anne M. LaPointe
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology
- Baker Laboratory
- Cornell University
- Ithaca
- New York 14853
| | - William B. Tolman
- Department of Chemistry
- Center for Sustainable Polymers
- University of Minnesota
- Minneapolis
- USA
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26
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Ternel J, Léger B, Monflier E, Hapiot F. Amines as effective ligands in iridium-catalyzed decarbonylative dehydration of biosourced substrates. Catal Sci Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8cy00621k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Linear α-olefins (LAOs) and linear internal olefins (LIOs) are essential intermediates in the synthesis of surfactants, lubricants, and polymers.
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27
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Zhang X, Jordan F, Szostak M. Transition-metal-catalyzed decarbonylation of carboxylic acids to olefins: exploiting acyl C–O activation for the production of high value products. Org Chem Front 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c8qo00585k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
In this article, we review the recent developments in the transition-metal-catalyzed decarbonylation of carboxylic acids to produce olefins by the formal acyl C–O activation mechanism and discuss future challenges in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Zhang
- Department of Chemistry
- Rutgers University
- Newark
- USA
| | - Frank Jordan
- Department of Chemistry
- Rutgers University
- Newark
- USA
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28
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Chatterjee A, Hopen Eliasson SH, Jensen VR. Selective production of linear α-olefins via catalytic deoxygenation of fatty acids and derivatives. Catal Sci Technol 2018. [DOI: 10.1039/c7cy02580g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Various homogeneous, heterogeneous, and enzyme catalysis strategies for the selective synthesis of linear α-olefins from fatty acids and their derivatives are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Vidar R. Jensen
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Bergen
- 5007 Bergen
- Norway
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29
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30
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O’Connor KS, Lamb JR, Vaidya T, Keresztes I, Klimovica K, LaPointe AM, Daugulis O, Coates GW. Understanding the Insertion Pathways and Chain Walking Mechanisms of α-Diimine Nickel Catalysts for α-Olefin Polymerization: A 13C NMR Spectroscopic Investigation. Macromolecules 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.7b01150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kyle S. O’Connor
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Jessica R. Lamb
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Tulaza Vaidya
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Ivan Keresztes
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Kristine Klimovica
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77204, United States
| | - Anne M. LaPointe
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
| | - Olafs Daugulis
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Houston, Houston, Texas 77204, United States
| | - Geoffrey W. Coates
- Department
of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, United States
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31
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John A, Dereli B, Ortuño MA, Johnson HE, Hillmyer MA, Cramer CJ, Tolman WB. Selective Decarbonylation of Fatty Acid Esters to Linear α-Olefins. Organometallics 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.7b00411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alex John
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers and ‡Department of Chemistry, Supercomputing Institute, and Chemical Theory Center, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Büsra Dereli
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers and ‡Department of Chemistry, Supercomputing Institute, and Chemical Theory Center, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Manuel A. Ortuño
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers and ‡Department of Chemistry, Supercomputing Institute, and Chemical Theory Center, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Hillis E. Johnson
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers and ‡Department of Chemistry, Supercomputing Institute, and Chemical Theory Center, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Marc A. Hillmyer
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers and ‡Department of Chemistry, Supercomputing Institute, and Chemical Theory Center, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Christopher J. Cramer
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers and ‡Department of Chemistry, Supercomputing Institute, and Chemical Theory Center, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - William B. Tolman
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers and ‡Department of Chemistry, Supercomputing Institute, and Chemical Theory Center, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
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32
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Ding K, Xu S, Alotaibi R, Paudel K, Reinheimer EW, Weatherly J. Nickel-Catalyzed Decarbonylation of Aromatic Aldehydes. J Org Chem 2017; 82:4924-4929. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.7b00284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Keying Ding
- Department
of Chemistry, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee 37132, United States
| | - Shi Xu
- Department
of Chemistry, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee 37132, United States
| | - Rajeh Alotaibi
- Department
of Chemistry, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee 37132, United States
| | - Keshav Paudel
- Department
of Chemistry, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee 37132, United States
| | | | - Jessie Weatherly
- Department
of Chemistry, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee 37132, United States
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33
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Chatterjee A, Jensen VR. A Heterogeneous Catalyst for the Transformation of Fatty Acids to α-Olefins. ACS Catal 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.6b03460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anamitra Chatterjee
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Vidar R. Jensen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bergen, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
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34
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John A, Hillmyer MA, Tolman WB. Anhydride-Additive-Free Nickel-Catalyzed Deoxygenation of Carboxylic Acids to Olefins. Organometallics 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.organomet.6b00940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alex John
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Marc A. Hillmyer
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - William B. Tolman
- Department of Chemistry & Center for Sustainable Polymers, University of Minnesota, 207 Pleasant Street SE, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
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35
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Chatterjee A, Hopen Eliasson SH, Törnroos KW, Jensen VR. Palladium Precatalysts for Decarbonylative Dehydration of Fatty Acids to Linear Alpha Olefins. ACS Catal 2016. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.6b02460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anamitra Chatterjee
- University
of Bergen, Department of Chemistry, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | | | - Karl W. Törnroos
- University
of Bergen, Department of Chemistry, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
| | - Vidar R. Jensen
- University
of Bergen, Department of Chemistry, Allégaten 41, N-5007 Bergen, Norway
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