1
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Cao D, Xia S, Li L, Zeng H, Li CJ. PPh 3-Promoted Direct Deoxygenation of Epoxides to Alkenes. Org Lett 2024. [PMID: 39046430 DOI: 10.1021/acs.orglett.4c02207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/25/2024]
Abstract
Deoxygenation of epoxides into alkenes is one of the most important strategies in organic synthesis, biomass conversions, and medicinal chemistry. Although metal-catalyzed direct deoxygenation provides one of the most commonly encountered protocols for the conversion of epoxides to alkenes, the requirement of expensive catalysts and extra reductants has largely limited their universal applicability. Herein, we report an efficient PPh3-promoted metal-free strategy for deoxygenation of epoxides to generate alkene derivatives. The success of deoxyalkenylation of epoxides bearing a wide range of functional groups to give terminal, 1,1-disubstituted, and 1,2-disubstituted alkenes manifests the powerfulness and versatility of this strategy. Moreover, gram-scale synthesis with excellent yield and modification of biologically active molecules exemplifies its generality and practicability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawei Cao
- Key Laboratory of Green and High-end Utilization of Salt Lake Resources, Qinghai Technology Research and Development Center of Comprehensive Utilization of Salt Lakes Resources, Qinghai Institute of Salt Lakes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
- Department of Chemistry and FRQNT Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Shumei Xia
- Key Laboratory of Green and High-end Utilization of Salt Lake Resources, Qinghai Technology Research and Development Center of Comprehensive Utilization of Salt Lakes Resources, Qinghai Institute of Salt Lakes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
- Department of Chemistry and FRQNT Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Lijuan Li
- Key Laboratory of Green and High-end Utilization of Salt Lake Resources, Qinghai Technology Research and Development Center of Comprehensive Utilization of Salt Lakes Resources, Qinghai Institute of Salt Lakes, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xining, Qinghai 810008, China
| | - Huiying Zeng
- The State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Chao-Jun Li
- Department of Chemistry and FRQNT Centre for Green Chemistry and Catalysis, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3A 0B8, Canada
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2
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Maqbool M, Akhter T, Hassan SU, Mahmood A, Al-Masry W, Razzaque S. Development of a chromium oxide loaded mesoporous silica as an efficient catalyst for carbon dioxide-free production of ethylene oxide. RSC Adv 2023; 13:32424-32432. [PMID: 37928848 PMCID: PMC10623106 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra05858a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 11/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Ethylene oxide (EO) is a significant raw material used in many commodities for consumers, particularly ethoxylates, polymers, and certain other glycol derivatives. We synthesized a catalyst by incorporation of chromium oxide into a mesoporous silica material (Cr/MSM) via the hydrothermal method, an effective catalyst for partial ethylene oxidation for producing carbon dioxide (CO2) free EO. Subsequently, XRD, BET, XPS, and TEM were used to analyse the structural characteristics of the Cr/MSM catalyst. The catalytic performance of the synthesized catalyst was assessed in the liquid-phase epoxidation (LPE) of ethylene, utilizing peracetic acid (PAA) as an oxidant. This approach not only circumvented the generation of CO2 but also mitigated the risk of metal leaching. Confirmation of the successful production of EO was achieved through GC chromatography, where the presence of a peak with a retention time (RT) of 8.91 minutes served as conclusive evidence. We systematically explored a range of reaction parameters, including temperature, catalyst concentration, the molar ratio of ethylene to PAA, and solvent effect. This comprehensive investigation aimed to fine-tune the reaction conditions, ultimately improving ethylene conversion and enhancing the selectivity of the catalyst for EO production. This approach can effectively resolve the issues of greenhouse gas emissions and metal leaching that had been associated with previously reported catalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Maqbool
- Department of Chemistry, University of Management and Technology C-II, Johar Town 54770 Lahore Pakistan
| | - Toheed Akhter
- Department of Chemistry, University of Management and Technology C-II, Johar Town 54770 Lahore Pakistan
| | - Sadaf Ul Hassan
- Department of Chemistry, COMSATS University Islamabad, Lahore Campus Lahore Pakistan
| | - Asif Mahmood
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University Riyadh 11421 Saudi Arabia
| | - Waheed Al-Masry
- Department of Chemical Engineering, College of Engineering, King Saud University Riyadh 11421 Saudi Arabia
| | - Shumaila Razzaque
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, Polish Academy of Sciences Kasprzaka, 44/51 01-224 Warszawa Poland
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3
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He Z, Moreno JA, Swain M, Wu J, Kwon O. Aminodealkenylation: Ozonolysis and copper catalysis convert C(sp 3)-C(sp 2) bonds to C(sp 3)-N bonds. Science 2023; 381:877-886. [PMID: 37616345 PMCID: PMC10753956 DOI: 10.1126/science.adi4758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023]
Abstract
Great efforts have been directed toward alkene π bond amination. In contrast, analogous functionalization of the adjacent C(sp3)-C(sp2) σ bonds is much rarer. Here we report how ozonolysis and copper catalysis under mild reaction conditions enable alkene C(sp3)-C(sp2) σ bond-rupturing cross-coupling reactions for the construction of new C(sp3)-N bonds. We have used this unconventional transformation for late-stage modification of hormones, pharmaceutical reagents, peptides, and nucleosides. Furthermore, we have coupled abundantly available terpenes and terpenoids with nitrogen nucleophiles to access artificial terpenoid alkaloids and complex chiral amines. In addition, we applied a commodity chemical, α-methylstyrene, as a methylation reagent to prepare methylated nucleosides directly from canonical nucleosides in one synthetic step. Our mechanistic investigation implicates an unusual copper ion pair cooperative process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiqi He
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, USA
| | - Jose Antonio Moreno
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, USA
| | - Manisha Swain
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, USA
| | - Jason Wu
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, USA
| | - Ohyun Kwon
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1569, USA
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4
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Akkarasamiyo S, Chitsomkhuan S, Buakaew S, Samec JSM, Chuawong P, Kuntiyong P. Synthesis of (Z)-Cinnamate Esters by Nickel-Catalyzed Stereoinvertive Deoxygenation of trans-3-Arylglycidates. Synlett 2022. [DOI: 10.1055/s-0040-1719911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
AbstractWe report a stereoinvertive deoxygenation of trans-3-arylglycidates as an alternative route to access thermodynamically less stable (Z)-cinnamate esters by using nickel triflate and triphenylphosphine. Broad functional-group tolerance was observed, with trans-3-arylglycidates containing methyl, methoxy, halo, or nitro groups affording the corresponding (Z)-cinnamate esters in high yields and with moderate to high E/Z ratios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunisa Akkarasamiyo
- Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Special Research Unit for Advanced Magnetic Resonance (AMR), Kasetsart University
| | - Saranya Chitsomkhuan
- Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Special Research Unit for Advanced Magnetic Resonance (AMR), Kasetsart University
| | - Supawadee Buakaew
- Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Special Research Unit for Advanced Magnetic Resonance (AMR), Kasetsart University
| | | | - Pitak Chuawong
- Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Special Research Unit for Advanced Magnetic Resonance (AMR), Kasetsart University
| | - Punlop Kuntiyong
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Silpakorn University
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5
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Louka A, Stratakis M. Deoxygenation of Epoxides with Hexamethyldigermane Catalyzed by Au Nanoparticles on TiO
2. ASIAN J ORG CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ajoc.202100581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Anastasia Louka
- Department of Chemistry University of Crete Voutes 71003 Heraklion Greece
| | - Manolis Stratakis
- Department of Chemistry University of Crete Voutes 71003 Heraklion Greece
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6
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Nanocrystals perovskites photocatalyzed singlet oxygen generation for light-driven organic reactions. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2021; 21:613-624. [PMID: 34617257 DOI: 10.1007/s43630-021-00106-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Lead halide perovskite nanocrystals were prepared and used as photocatalysts for the in situ 1O2 generation to perform hetero Diels-Alder, ene and oxidation reactions with suitable dienes and alkenes. The methodology has been reasonably standardized and made applicable to a variety of olefinic substrates. The scope of the method is finely illustrated by the results in all the tested reactions, which allowed to obtain desymmetrized hydroxy-ketone derivatives, unsaturated ketones and epoxides. Some limitations were also observed especially in the case of the alkene oxidations as well as poor chemoselectivity was somewhere observed. 1O2 generated by lead halide perovskite nanocrystals as photocatalyst in organic reactions.
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7
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Fiorio JL, Rossi LM. Clean protocol for deoxygenation of epoxides to alkenes via catalytic hydrogenation using gold. Catal Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cy01695k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Au NP catalyst combined with triethylphosphite, P(OEt)3, is remarkably more reactive than solely Au NPs for the selective deoxygenation of epoxides to alkenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jhonatan L. Fiorio
- Departamento de Química Fundamental
- Instituto de Química
- Universidade de São Paulo
- São Paulo
- Brazil
| | - Liane M. Rossi
- Departamento de Química Fundamental
- Instituto de Química
- Universidade de São Paulo
- São Paulo
- Brazil
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8
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Corti M, Chiara R, Romani L, Mannucci B, Malavasi L, Quadrelli P. g-C 3N 4/metal halide perovskite composites as photocatalysts for singlet oxygen generation processes for the preparation of various oxidized synthons. Catal Sci Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0cy02352c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Singlet oxygen generated by g-C3N4/metal halide perovskite composites as photocatalysts in organic oxidation reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Corti
- University of Pavia
- Department of Chemistry
- 27100 – Pavia
- Italy
| | - Rossella Chiara
- University of Pavia
- Department of Chemistry
- 27100 – Pavia
- Italy
| | - Lidia Romani
- University of Pavia
- Department of Chemistry
- 27100 – Pavia
- Italy
| | - Barbara Mannucci
- University of Pavia
- Centro Grandi Strumenti (CGS)
- 27100 – Pavia
- Italy
| | | | - Paolo Quadrelli
- University of Pavia
- Department of Chemistry
- 27100 – Pavia
- Italy
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9
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Abstract
The use of carbon monoxide as a direct reducing agent for the deoxygenation of terminal and internal epoxides to the respective olefins is presented. This reaction is homogeneously catalyzed by a carbonyl pincer-iridium(I) complex in combination with a Lewis acid co-catalyst to achieve a pre-activation of the epoxide substrate, as well as the elimination of CO2 from a γ-2-iridabutyrolactone intermediate. Especially terminal alkyl epoxides react smoothly and without significant isomerization to the internal olefins under CO atmosphere in benzene or toluene at 80-120 °C. Detailed investigations reveal a substrate-dependent change in the mechanism for the epoxide C-O bond activation between an oxidative addition under retention of the configuration and an SN 2 reaction that leads to an inversion of the configuration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theo Maulbetsch
- Institut für Anorganische ChemieUniversity of TübingenAuf der Morgenstelle 1872076TübingenGermany
| | - Eva Jürgens
- Institut für Anorganische ChemieUniversity of TübingenAuf der Morgenstelle 1872076TübingenGermany
| | - Doris Kunz
- Institut für Anorganische ChemieUniversity of TübingenAuf der Morgenstelle 1872076TübingenGermany
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10
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Lamb JR, Hubbell AK, MacMillan SN, Coates GW. Carbonylative, Catalytic Deoxygenation of 2,3-Disubstituted Epoxides with Inversion of Stereochemistry: An Alternative Alkene Isomerization Method. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:8029-8035. [PMID: 32309937 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.0c02653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Reactions facilitating inversion of alkene stereochemistry are rare, sought-after transformations in the field of modern organic synthesis. Although a number of isomerization reactions exist, most methods require specific, highly activated substrates to achieve appreciable conversion without side product formation. Motivated by stereoinvertive epoxide carbonylation reactions, we developed a two-step epoxidation/deoxygenation process that results in overall inversion of alkene stereochemistry. Unlike most deoxygenation systems, carbon monoxide was used as the terminal reductant, preventing difficult postreaction separations, given the gaseous nature of the resulting carbon dioxide byproduct. Various alkyl-substituted cis- and trans-epoxides can be reduced to trans- and cis-alkenes, respectively, in >99:1 stereospecificity and up to 95% yield, providing an alternative to traditional, direct isomerization approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica R Lamb
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1301, United States
| | - Aran K Hubbell
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1301, United States
| | - Samantha N MacMillan
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1301, United States
| | - Geoffrey W Coates
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Baker Laboratory, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853-1301, United States
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11
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Zhong K, Shan C, Zhu L, Liu S, Zhang T, Liu F, Shen B, Lan Y, Bai R. Theoretical Study of the Addition of Cu-Carbenes to Acetylenes to Form Chiral Allenes. J Am Chem Soc 2019; 141:5772-5780. [PMID: 30887803 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.8b13055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Terminal alkynes have become one of the most versatile building blocks for C-C bond construction in the past few decades, and they are usually considered to convert to acetylides before further transformations. In this study, a novel direct nucleophilic addition mode for Cu(I)-catalyzed cross-coupling of terminal alkynes and N-tosylhydrazones to synthesize chiral allenes is proposed, and it was investigated by density functional theory with the M11-L density functional. Three different reaction pathways were considered and investigated. The computational results show that the proposed reaction pathway, which includes direct nucleophilic attack of protonated acetylene, deprotonation of the vinyl cation, and catalyst regeneration, is the most favorable pathway. Another possible deprotonation-carbenation-insertion pathway is shown to be unfavorable. The direct nucleophilic addition step is the rate- and enantioselectivity-determining step in the catalytic cycle. Noncovalent interaction analysis shows that the steric effect between the methyl group of the carbene moiety and the naphthalyl group of the bisoxazoline ligand is important to control the enantioselectivity. In addition, calculation of a series of chiral bisoxazoline ligands shows that a bulky group on the oxazoline ring is favorable for high enantioselectivity, which agrees with experimental observations. Moreover, copper acetylides are stable, and their generation is a favorable pathway in the absence of chiral bisoxazoline ligands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kangbao Zhong
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry , Chongqing University , Chongqing 400030 , China
| | - Chunhui Shan
- Postdoctoral Station of Biomedical Engineering , Chongqing University , Chongqing 400030 , China
| | - Lei Zhu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry , Chongqing University , Chongqing 400030 , China
| | - Song Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry , Chongqing University , Chongqing 400030 , China
| | - Tao Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry , Chongqing University , Chongqing 400030 , China
| | - Fenru Liu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry , Chongqing University , Chongqing 400030 , China
| | - Boming Shen
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry , Chongqing University , Chongqing 400030 , China
| | - Yu Lan
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry , Chongqing University , Chongqing 400030 , China.,College of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering , Zhengzhou University , Zhengzhou 450001 , China
| | - Ruopeng Bai
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Chongqing Key Laboratory of Theoretical and Computational Chemistry , Chongqing University , Chongqing 400030 , China
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12
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Lee J, Chen DYK. A Local-Desymmetrization-Based Divergent Synthesis of Quinine and Quinidine. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018; 58:488-493. [PMID: 30394634 DOI: 10.1002/anie.201811530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Herein we report a novel synthetic entry to the legendary quinuclidine natural products quinine and quinidine. The developed strategy is based on the use of a symmetrical and nonstereogenic precursor to access quinine and quinidine through a "local-desymmetrization" approach, in stark contrast conceptually to the preparation of stereodefined disubstituted piperidines (or their acyclic precursors) as featured in all past syntheses. The developed strategy also provided quinine and quinidine derivatives that could not be readily obtained through previous total syntheses or by modification of the naturally occurring substances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaehoo Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Gwanak-1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
| | - David Y-K Chen
- Department of Chemistry, Seoul National University, Gwanak-1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, South Korea
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13
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Lee J, Chen DYK. A Local-Desymmetrization-Based Divergent Synthesis of Quinine and Quinidine. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.201811530] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jaehoo Lee
- Department of Chemistry; Seoul National University; Gwanak-1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 South Korea
| | - David Y.-K. Chen
- Department of Chemistry; Seoul National University; Gwanak-1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu Seoul 08826 South Korea
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14
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Fehl C, Vogt CD, Yadav R, Li K, Scott EE, Aubé J. Structure-Based Design of Inhibitors with Improved Selectivity for Steroidogenic Cytochrome P450 17A1 over Cytochrome P450 21A2. J Med Chem 2018; 61:4946-4960. [PMID: 29792703 PMCID: PMC6367708 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.8b00419] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Inhibition of androgen biosynthesis is clinically effective for treating androgen-responsive prostate cancer. Abiraterone is a clinical first-in-class inhibitor of cytochrome P450 17A1 (CYP17A1) required for androgen biosynthesis. However, abiraterone also causes hypertension, hypokalemia, and edema, likely due in part to off-target inhibition of another steroidogenic cytochrome P450, CYP21A2. Abiraterone analogs were designed based on structural evidence that B-ring substituents may favorably interact with polar residues in binding CYP17A1 and sterically clash with residues in the CYP21A2 active site. The best analogs increased selectivity of CYP17A1 inhibition up to 84-fold compared with 6.6-fold for abiraterone. Cocrystallization with CYP17A1 validated the intended new contacts with CYP17A1 active site residues. Docking these analogs into CYP21A2 identified steric clashes that likely underlie decreased binding and CYP21A2 inhibition. Overall, these analogs may offer a clinical advantage in the form of reduced side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlie Fehl
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of
Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas, 66047, United States
| | - Caleb D. Vogt
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal
Chemistry, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Rahul Yadav
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Kelin Li
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal
Chemistry, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Emily E. Scott
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of
Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Jeffrey Aubé
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal
Chemistry, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel
Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
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