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Tian L, Jackson K, He L, Khan S, Thirugnanasampanthar M, Gomez M, Bayat F, Didar TF, Hosseinidoust Z. High-throughput fabrication of antimicrobial phage microgels and example applications in food decontamination. Nat Protoc 2024; 19:1591-1622. [PMID: 38413781 DOI: 10.1038/s41596-024-00964-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
Engineered by nature, biological entities are exceptional building blocks for biomaterials. These entities can impart enhanced functionalities on the final material that are otherwise unattainable. However, preserving the bioactive functionalities of these building blocks during the material fabrication process remains a challenge. We describe a high-throughput protocol for the bottom-up self-assembly of highly concentrated phages into microgels while preserving and amplifying their inherent antimicrobial activity and biofunctionality. Each microgel is comprised of half a million cross-linked phages as the sole structural component, self-organized in aligned bundles. We discuss common pitfalls in the preparation procedure and describe optimization processes to ensure the preservation of the biofunctionality of the phage building blocks. This protocol enables the production of an antimicrobial spray containing the manufactured phage microgels, loaded with potent virulent phages that effectively reduced high loads of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli O157:H7 on red meat and fresh produce. Compared with other microgel preparation methods, our protocol is particularly well suited to biological materials because it is free of organic solvents and heat. Bench-scale preparation of base materials, namely microporous films (the template for casting microgels) and pure concentrated phage suspension, requires 3.5 h and 5 d, respectively. A single production run, that yields over 1,750,000 microgels, ranges from 2 h to 2 d depending on the rate of cross-linking chemistry. We expect that this platform will address bottlenecks associated with shelf-stability, preservation and delivery of phage for antimicrobial applications, expanding the use of phage for prevention and control of bacterial infections and contaminants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Tian
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kyle Jackson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
- Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Leon He
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Shadman Khan
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | | | - Mellissa Gomez
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Fereshteh Bayat
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada
| | - Tohid F Didar
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
- Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
- Brockhouse Institute for Materials Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
| | - Zeinab Hosseinidoust
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
- Farncombe Family Digestive Health Research Institute, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
- Michael G. DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
- Brockhouse Institute for Materials Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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2
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Dong X, Wu W, Pan P, Zhang XZ. Engineered Living Materials for Advanced Diseases Therapy. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2023:e2304963. [PMID: 37436776 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202304963] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023]
Abstract
Natural living materials serving as biotherapeutics exhibit great potential for treating various diseases owing to their immunoactivity, tissue targeting, and other biological activities. In this review, the recent developments in engineered living materials, including mammalian cells, bacteria, viruses, fungi, microalgae, plants, and their active derivatives that are used for treating various diseases are summarized. Further, the future perspectives and challenges of such engineered living material-based biotherapeutics are discussed to provide considerations for future advances in biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xue Dong
- Institute for Advanced Studies, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
- Medical Center of Hematology, Xinqiao Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400037, P. R. China
| | - Wei Wu
- Medical Center of Hematology, Xinqiao Hospital, State Key Laboratory of Trauma, Burn and Combined Injury, Army Medical University, Chongqing, 400037, P. R. China
| | - Pei Pan
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education and Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
| | - Xian-Zheng Zhang
- Institute for Advanced Studies, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory of Biomedical Polymers of Ministry of Education and Department of Chemistry, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430072, P. R. China
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3
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Wang X, Zhu X, Wang D, Li X, Wang J, Yin G, Huang Z, Pu X. Identification of a Specific Phage as Growth Factor Alternative Promoting the Recruitment and Differentiation of MSCs in Bone Tissue Regeneration. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2023; 9:2426-2437. [PMID: 37023478 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.2c01538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Inefficient use and loss of exogenously implanted mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are major concerns in MSCs-based bone tissue engineering. It is a promising approach to overcome the above issues by recruiting and regulation of endogenous MSCs. However, there are few substances that can recruit MSCs effectively and specifically to the site of bone injury. In this study, we identified a phage clone (termed P11) with specific affinity for MSCs through phage display biopanning, and further investigated the effects of P11 on the cytological behavior of MSCs and macrophages. The results showed that P11 could bind MSCs specifically and promote the proliferation and migration of MSCs. Meanwhile, P11 could polarize macrophages to the M1 phenotype and significantly changed their morphology, which further enhanced the chemotaxis of MSCs. Additionally, RNA-seq results revealed that P11 could promote the secretion of osteogenesis-related markers in MSCs through the TPL2-MEK-ERK signaling pathway. Altogether, P11 has great potential to be used as growth factor alternatives in bone tissue engineering, with the advantages of cheaper and stable activity. Our study also advances the understanding of the effects of phages on macrophages and MSCs, and provides a new idea for the development in the field of phage-based tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xingming Wang
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiupeng Zhu
- Institute of Biomedical Engineering, College of Medicine, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, People's Republic of China
- Key Laboratory of Advanced Technologies of Materials Ministry of Education, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu 610031, People's Republic of China
| | - Danni Wang
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoxu Li
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Juan Wang
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Guangfu Yin
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhongbing Huang
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, People's Republic of China
| | - Ximing Pu
- College of Biomedical Engineering, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610065, People's Republic of China
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4
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Strathdee SA, Hatfull GF, Mutalik VK, Schooley RT. Phage therapy: From biological mechanisms to future directions. Cell 2023; 186:17-31. [PMID: 36608652 PMCID: PMC9827498 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2022.11.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 130] [Impact Index Per Article: 130.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Increasing antimicrobial resistance rates have revitalized bacteriophage (phage) research, the natural predators of bacteria discovered over 100 years ago. In order to use phages therapeutically, they should (1) preferably be lytic, (2) kill the bacterial host efficiently, and (3) be fully characterized to exclude side effects. Developing therapeutic phages takes a coordinated effort of multiple stakeholders. Herein, we review the state of the art in phage therapy, covering biological mechanisms, clinical applications, remaining challenges, and future directions involving naturally occurring and genetically modified or synthetic phages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steffanie A Strathdee
- Center for Innovative Phage Applications and Therapeutics, Division of Infectious Disease and Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0507, USA.
| | - Graham F Hatfull
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA
| | - Vivek K Mutalik
- Environmental Genomics and Systems Biology Division, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
| | - Robert T Schooley
- Center for Innovative Phage Applications and Therapeutics, Division of Infectious Disease and Global Public Health, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0507, USA
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Tian L, He L, Jackson K, Saif A, Khan S, Wan Z, Didar TF, Hosseinidoust Z. Self-assembling nanofibrous bacteriophage microgels as sprayable antimicrobials targeting multidrug-resistant bacteria. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7158. [PMID: 36470891 PMCID: PMC9723106 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34803-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2022] [Accepted: 11/08/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanofilamentous bacteriophages (bacterial viruses) are biofunctional, self-propagating, and monodisperse natural building blocks for virus-built materials. Minifying phage-built materials to microscale offers the promise of expanding the range function for these biomaterials to sprays and colloidal bioassays/biosensors. Here, we crosslink half a million self-organized phages as the sole structural component to construct each soft microgel. Through an in-house developed, biologics-friendly, high-throughput template method, over 35,000 phage-built microgels are produced from every square centimetre of a peelable microporous film template, constituting a 13-billion phage community. The phage-exclusive microgels exhibit a self-organized, highly-aligned nanofibrous texture and tunable auto-fluorescence. Further preservation of antimicrobial activity was achieved by making hybrid protein-phage microgels. When loaded with potent virulent phages, these microgels effectively reduce heavy loads of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli O157:H7 on food products, leading to up to 6 logs reduction in 9 hours and rendering food contaminant free.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Tian
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Leon He
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Kyle Jackson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Ahmed Saif
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Shadman Khan
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Zeqi Wan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Tohid F Didar
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
- Michael DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Zeinab Hosseinidoust
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4L7, Canada.
- School of Biomedical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada.
- Michael DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, L8S 4K1, Canada.
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6
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González-Gamboa I, Velázquez-Lam E, Lobo-Zegers MJ, Frías-Sánchez AI, Tavares-Negrete JA, Monroy-Borrego A, Menchaca-Arrendondo JL, Williams L, Lunello P, Ponz F, Alvarez MM, Trujillo-de Santiago G. Gelatin-methacryloyl hydrogels containing turnip mosaic virus for fabrication of nanostructured materials for tissue engineering. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:907601. [PMID: 36118588 PMCID: PMC9480610 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.907601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Current tissue engineering techniques frequently rely on hydrogels to support cell growth, as these materials strongly mimic the extracellular matrix. However, hydrogels often need ad hoc customization to generate specific tissue constructs. One popular strategy for hydrogel functionalization is to add nanoparticles to them. Here, we present a plant viral nanoparticle the turnip mosaic virus (TuMV), as a promising additive for gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) hydrogels for the engineering of mammalian tissues. TuMV is a flexuous, elongated, tubular protein nanoparticle (700–750 nm long and 12–15 nm wide) and is incapable of infecting mammalian cells. These flexuous nanoparticles spontaneously form entangled nanomeshes in aqueous environments, and we hypothesized that this nanomesh structure could serve as a nanoscaffold for cells. Human fibroblasts loaded into GelMA-TuMV hydrogels exhibited similar metabolic activity to that of cells loaded in pristine GelMA hydrogels. However, cells cultured in GelMA-TuMV formed clusters and assumed an elongated morphology in contrast to the homogeneous and confluent cultures seen on GelMA surfaces, suggesting that the nanoscaffold material per se did not favor cell adhesion. We also covalently conjugated TuMV particles with epidermal growth factor (EGF) using a straightforward reaction scheme based on a Staudinger reaction. BJ cells cultured on the functionalized scaffolds increased their confluency by approximately 30% compared to growth with unconjugated EGF. We also provide examples of the use of GelMA-TuMV hydrogels in different biofabrication scenarios, include casting, flow-based-manufacture of filaments, and bioprinting. We envision TuMV as a versatile nanobiomaterial that can be useful for tissue engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivonne González-Gamboa
- Centro de Biotecnología-FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
- Departamento de Bioingeniería, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Edith Velázquez-Lam
- Centro de Biotecnología y Genómica de Plantas, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid—Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (CBGP, UPM-INIA/CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Matías José Lobo-Zegers
- Centro de Biotecnología-FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
- Departamento de Ingeniería Mecatrónica y Eléctrica, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Ada Itzel Frías-Sánchez
- Centro de Biotecnología-FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
- Departamento de Ingeniería Mecatrónica y Eléctrica, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Jorge Alfonso Tavares-Negrete
- Centro de Biotecnología-FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
- Departamento de Bioingeniería, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Andrea Monroy-Borrego
- Centro de Biotecnología-FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
- Departamento de Bioingeniería, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
| | - Jorge Luis Menchaca-Arrendondo
- Centro de Investigación en Ciencias Físico Matemáticas (CICFIM), Facultad de Ciencias Físico-Matemáticas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, Mexico
| | | | | | - Fernando Ponz
- Centro de Biotecnología y Genómica de Plantas, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid—Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (CBGP, UPM-INIA/CSIC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Mario Moisés Alvarez
- Centro de Biotecnología-FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
- Departamento de Bioingeniería, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Mario Moisés Alvarez, ; Grissel Trujillo-de Santiago,
| | - Grissel Trujillo-de Santiago
- Centro de Biotecnología-FEMSA, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
- Departamento de Ingeniería Mecatrónica y Eléctrica, Escuela de Ingeniería y Ciencias, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, Nuevo León, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Mario Moisés Alvarez, ; Grissel Trujillo-de Santiago,
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7
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Tian L, Jackson K, Zhang A, Wan Z, Saif A, Hosseinidoust Z. Bacteriophage‐Built Gels as Platforms for Biomedical Applications. CAN J CHEM ENG 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/cjce.24497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Tian
- Department of Chemical Engineering McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
| | - Kyle Jackson
- Department of Chemical Engineering McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
| | - Amy Zhang
- Department of Chemical Engineering McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
| | - Zeqi Wan
- Department of Chemical Engineering McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
| | - Ahmed Saif
- Department of Chemical Engineering McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
| | - Zeinab Hosseinidoust
- Department of Chemical Engineering McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
- School of Biomedical Engineering McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
- Michael DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research McMaster University Hamilton Ontario Canada
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8
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Edwardson TGW, Levasseur MD, Tetter S, Steinauer A, Hori M, Hilvert D. Protein Cages: From Fundamentals to Advanced Applications. Chem Rev 2022; 122:9145-9197. [PMID: 35394752 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Proteins that self-assemble into polyhedral shell-like structures are useful molecular containers both in nature and in the laboratory. Here we review efforts to repurpose diverse protein cages, including viral capsids, ferritins, bacterial microcompartments, and designed capsules, as vaccines, drug delivery vehicles, targeted imaging agents, nanoreactors, templates for controlled materials synthesis, building blocks for higher-order architectures, and more. A deep understanding of the principles underlying the construction, function, and evolution of natural systems has been key to tailoring selective cargo encapsulation and interactions with both biological systems and synthetic materials through protein engineering and directed evolution. The ability to adapt and design increasingly sophisticated capsid structures and functions stands to benefit the fields of catalysis, materials science, and medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Stephan Tetter
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Angela Steinauer
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Mao Hori
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Donald Hilvert
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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9
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Peivandi A, Jackson K, Tian L, He L, Mahmood A, Fradin C, Hosseinidoust Z. Inducing Microscale Structural Order in Phage Nanofilament Hydrogels with Globular Proteins. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2021; 8:340-347. [PMID: 34905337 DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.1c01112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Biological hydrogels play important physiological roles in the body. These hydrogels often contain ordered subdomains that provide mechanical toughness and other tissue-specific functionality. Filamentous bacteriophages are nanofilaments with a high aspect ratio that can self-assemble into liquid crystalline domains that could be designed to mimic ordered biological hydrogels and can thus find applications in biomedical engineering. We have previously reported hydrogels of pure cross-linked liquid crystalline filamentous phage formed at very high concentrations exhibiting a tightly packed microstructure and high stiffness. In this work, we report a method for inducing self-assembly of filamentous phage into liquid crystalline hydrogels at concentrations that are several orders of magnitude below that of lyotropic liquid crystal formation, thus creating structural order but a less densely packed microstructure. Hybrid hydrogels of M13 phage and bovine serum albumin (0.25 w/v%) were formed and shown to adsorb up to 16× their weight in water. Neither component gelled on its own at the low concentrations used, suggesting synergistic action between the two components in the formation of the hydrogel. The hybrid hydrogels exhibited repetitive self-healing under physiological conditions and at room temperature, autofluorescence in three channels, and antibacterial activity toward Escherichia coli host cells. Furthermore, the hybrid hydrogels exhibited a more than 2× higher ability to pack water compared to BSA-only hydrogels and 2× lower compression modulus compared to tightly packed M13-only hydrogels, suggesting that our method could be used to create hydrogels with tunable mechanical properties and pore structure through the addition of globular proteins, while maintaining bioactivity and microscale structural order.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azadeh Peivandi
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Kyle Jackson
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Lei Tian
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Leon He
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Ahmad Mahmood
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada
| | - Cécile Fradin
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4M1, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry and Biomedical Sciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4K1, Canada
| | - Zeinab Hosseinidoust
- Department of Chemical Engineering, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada.,Michael DeGroote Institute for Infectious Disease Research, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L8, Canada
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10
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A possibility of polaron vortex magnet of polypyrrole prepared in virus liquid crystal. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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