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Kosar S, De Wolf S. Imaging Locally Inhomogeneous Properties of Metal Halide Perovskites. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2024:e2406886. [PMID: 39390848 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202406886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2024] [Revised: 09/09/2024] [Indexed: 10/12/2024]
Abstract
Metal halide perovskites (MHPs) are a perfect example of state-of-the-art photovoltaic materials whose compositional and structural diversity, coupled with utilization of low-temperature processing, can undesirably result in spatially inhomogeneous properties that locally vary within the material. This complexity of MHPs requires sensitive imaging characterization methods at the microscopic level to gauge the impact of such inhomogeneities on device performance and to formulate mitigation strategies. This review consolidates properties of MHPs that are susceptible to local variations and highlights appropriate imaging techniques that can be employed to map them. Inhomogeneities in morphology, emission, electrical response, and chemical composition of MHP thin films are specifically considered, and possible microscopic techniques for their visualization are reviewed. For each type of microscopy, a short discussion about spatial resolution, sample requirements, advantages, and limitations is provided, thus leaving the reader with a guide of available imaging characterization tools to evaluate inhomogeneities of their MHPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sofiia Kosar
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Physical Science and Engineering Division (PSE), KAUST Photovoltaics Laboratory, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
| | - Stefaan De Wolf
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Physical Science and Engineering Division (PSE), KAUST Photovoltaics Laboratory, Thuwal, 23955-6900, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
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Akrami F, Jiang F, Giridharagopal R, Ginger DS. Kinetic Suppression of Photoinduced Halide Migration in Wide Bandgap Perovskites via Surface Passivation. J Phys Chem Lett 2023; 14:9310-9315. [PMID: 37818819 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.3c02570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we study the kinetics of photoinduced halide migration in FA0.8Cs0.2Pb(I0.8Br0.2)3 wide (∼1.69 eV) bandgap perovskites and show that halide migration slows down following surface passivation with (3-aminopropyl) trimethoxysilane (APTMS). We use scanning Kelvin probe microscopy (SKPM) to probe the contact potential difference (CPD) shift under illumination and the kinetics of surface potential relaxation in the dark. Our results show that APTMS-passivated perovskites exhibit a smaller CPD shift under illumination and a slower surface potential relaxation in the dark. We compare the evolution of the photoluminescence spectra of APTMS-passivated and unpassivated perovskites under illumination. We find that APTMS-passivated perovskites exhibit more than 5 times slower photoluminescence red-shift, consistent with the slower surface potential relaxation as observed by SKPM. These observations provide evidence for kinetic suppression of photoinduced halide migration in APTMS-passivated samples, likely due to reduced halide vacancy densities, opening avenues to more efficient and stable devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhad Akrami
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Fangyuan Jiang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - Rajiv Giridharagopal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
| | - David S Ginger
- Department of Chemistry, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington 98195, United States
- Physical Sciences Division, Physical and Computational Sciences Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99352, United States
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Zhang H, Alanthattil A, Webster RF, Zhang D, Ghasemian MB, Venkataramana RB, Seidel J, Sharma P. Robust Switchable Polarization and Coupled Electronic Characteristics of Magnesium-Doped Zinc Oxide. ACS NANO 2023; 17:17148-17157. [PMID: 37656004 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.3c04937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
Ferroelectrics possess a spontaneous polarization that is switchable by an electric field and is critical for the development of low-energy nanoelectronics and neuromorphic applications. However, apart from a few recent developments, the realization of switchable polarization in metal oxides with simpler structures has been a major challenge. Here, we demonstrate the presence of robust switchable polarization at the level of a single nanocrystallite in magnesium-doped zinc oxide thin films with polar wurtzite crystal structures. Using a combination of high-resolution scanning probe microscopy and spectroscopic techniques, voltage control of the polarization and the coupled electronic transport behavior revealing a giant resistance change of approximately 10000% is unveiled. Time- and frequency-resolved nanoscale measurements provide key insights into the polarization phenomenon and a 9-fold increase in the effective longitudinal piezoelectric coefficient. Our work thus constitutes a crucial step toward validating nanoscale ferroelectricity in polar wurtzites for use in advanced nanoelectronics and memory applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoze Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of New South Wales (UNSW) Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Ayana Alanthattil
- Department of Physics, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Richard F Webster
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of New South Wales (UNSW) Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- Electron Microscope Unit, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Dawei Zhang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of New South Wales (UNSW) Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Future Low-Energy Electronics Technologies, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Mohammad B Ghasemian
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia
- School of Chemical Engineering, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Rajendra B Venkataramana
- Department of Physics, Manipal Institute of Technology, Manipal Academy of Higher Education, Manipal 576104, India
| | - Jan Seidel
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of New South Wales (UNSW) Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Future Low-Energy Electronics Technologies, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
| | - Pankaj Sharma
- ARC Centre of Excellence in Future Low-Energy Electronics Technologies, UNSW Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales 2052, Australia
- College of Science and Engineering, Flinders University, Bedford Park, South Australia 5042, Australia
- Flinders Institute for Nanoscale Science and Technology, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia 5042, Australia
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Szostak R, de Souza Gonçalves A, de Freitas JN, Marchezi PE, de Araújo FL, Tolentino HCN, Toney MF, das Chagas Marques F, Nogueira AF. In Situ and Operando Characterizations of Metal Halide Perovskite and Solar Cells: Insights from Lab-Sized Devices to Upscaling Processes. Chem Rev 2023; 123:3160-3236. [PMID: 36877871 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2023]
Abstract
The performance and stability of metal halide perovskite solar cells strongly depend on precursor materials and deposition methods adopted during the perovskite layer preparation. There are often a number of different formation pathways available when preparing perovskite films. Since the precise pathway and intermediary mechanisms affect the resulting properties of the cells, in situ studies have been conducted to unravel the mechanisms involved in the formation and evolution of perovskite phases. These studies contributed to the development of procedures to improve the structural, morphological, and optoelectronic properties of the films and to move beyond spin-coating, with the use of scalable techniques. To explore the performance and degradation of devices, operando studies have been conducted on solar cells subjected to normal operating conditions, or stressed with humidity, high temperatures, and light radiation. This review presents an update of studies conducted in situ using a wide range of structural, imaging, and spectroscopic techniques, involving the formation/degradation of halide perovskites. Operando studies are also addressed, emphasizing the latest degradation results for perovskite solar cells. These works demonstrate the importance of in situ and operando studies to achieve the level of stability required for scale-up and consequent commercial deployment of these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Szostak
- Laboratório de Nanotecnologia e Energia Solar (LNES), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNLS), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), 13083-100 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Agnaldo de Souza Gonçalves
- Laboratório de Nanotecnologia e Energia Solar (LNES), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Gleb Wataghin Institute of Physics, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), 13083-859 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Jilian Nei de Freitas
- Center for Information Technology Renato Archer (CTI), 13069-901 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Paulo E Marchezi
- Laboratório de Nanotecnologia e Energia Solar (LNES), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil
- Department of Engineering and Physics, Karlstad University, 651 88 Karlstad, Sweden
| | - Francineide Lopes de Araújo
- Laboratório de Nanotecnologia e Energia Solar (LNES), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Hélio Cesar Nogueira Tolentino
- Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory (LNLS), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), 13083-100 Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - Michael F Toney
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, and Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | | | - Ana Flavia Nogueira
- Laboratório de Nanotecnologia e Energia Solar (LNES), University of Campinas (UNICAMP), 13083-970, Campinas, SP, Brazil
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Berweger S, Zhang F, Larson BW, Ferguson AJ, Palmstrom AF, Reid OG, Wallis TM, Zhu K, Berry JJ, Kabos P, Nanayakkara SU. Nanoscale Photoexcited Carrier Dynamics in Perovskites. J Phys Chem Lett 2022; 13:2388-2395. [PMID: 35257587 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.2c00233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The optoelectronic properties of lead halide perovskite thin films can be tuned through compositional variations and strain, but the associated nanocrystalline structure makes it difficult to untangle the link between composition, processing conditions, and ultimately material properties and degradation. Here, we study the effect of processing conditions and degradation on the local photoconductivity dynamics in [(CsPbI3)0.05(FAPbI3)0.85(MAPbBr3)0.15] and (FA0.7Cs0.3PbI3) perovskite thin films using temporally and spectrally resolved microwave near-field microscopy with a temporal resolution as high as 5 ns and a spatial resolution better than 50 nm. For the latter FACs formulation, we find a clear effect of the process annealing temperature on film morphology, stability, and spatial photoconductivity distribution. After exposure of samples to ambient conditions and illumination, we find spectral evidence of halide segregation-induced degradation below the instrument resolution limit for the mixed halide formulation, while we find a clear spatially inhomogeneous increase in the carrier lifetime for the FACs formulation annealed at 180 °C.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel Berweger
- Applied Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
| | - Fei Zhang
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
- School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Bryon W Larson
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Andrew J Ferguson
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Axel F Palmstrom
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Obadiah G Reid
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
- Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado 80309, United States
| | - Thomas M Wallis
- Applied Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
| | - Kai Zhu
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Joseph J Berry
- National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Pavel Kabos
- Applied Physics Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Boulder, Colorado 80305, United States
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Aubriet V, Courouble K, Bardagot O, Demadrille R, Borowik Ł, Grévin B. Hidden surface photovoltages revealed by pump probe KPFM. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33:225401. [PMID: 35168229 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac5542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In this work, we use pump-probe Kelvin probe force microscopy (pp-KPFM) in combination with non-contact atomic force microscopy (nc-AFM) under ultrahigh vacuum, to investigate the nature of the light-induced surface potential dynamics in alumina-passivated crystalline silicon, and in an organic bulk heterojunction thin film based on the PTB7-PC71BM tandem. In both cases, we demonstrate that it is possible to identify and separate the contributions of two different kinds of photo-induced charge distributions that give rise to potential shifts with opposite polarities, each characterized by different dynamics. The data acquired on the passivated crystalline silicon are shown to be fully consistent with the band-bending at the silicon-oxide interface, and with electron trapping processes in acceptors states and in the passivation layer. The full sequence of events that follow the electron-hole generation can be observed on the pp-KPFM curves, i.e. the carriers spatial separation and hole accumulation in the space charge area, the electron trapping, the electron-hole recombination, and finally the electron trap-release. Two dimensional dynamical maps of the organic blend photo-response are obtained by recording the pump-probe KPFM curves in data cube mode, and by implementing a specific batch processing protocol. Sample areas displaying an extra positive SPV component characterized by decay time-constants of a few tens of microseconds are thus revealed, and are tentatively attributed to specific interfaces formed between a polymer-enriched skin layer and recessed acceptor aggregates. Decay time constant images of the negative SPV component confirm that the acceptor clusters act as electron-trapping centres. Whatever the photovoltaic technology, our results exemplify how some of the SPV components may remain completely hidden to conventional SPV imaging by KPFM, with possible consequences in terms of photo-response misinterpretation. This work furthermore highlights the need of implementing time-resolved techniques that can provide a quantitative measurement of the time-resolved potential.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Olivier Bardagot
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG-SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Renaud Demadrille
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG-SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Łukasz Borowik
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CEA, LETI, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Benjamin Grévin
- Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, CEA, IRIG-SyMMES, F-38000 Grenoble, France
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Richheimer F, Toth D, Hailegnaw B, Baker MA, Dorey RA, Kienberger F, Castro FA, Kaltenbrunner M, Scharber MC, Gramse G, Wood S. Ion-driven nanograin formation in early-stage degradation of tri-cation perovskite films. NANOSCALE 2022; 14:2605-2616. [PMID: 35129185 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr05045a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The operational stability of organic-inorganic halide perovskite based solar cells is a challenge for widespread commercial adoption. The mobility of ionic species is a key contributor to perovskite instability since ion migration can lead to unfavourable changes in the crystal lattice and ultimately destabilisation of the perovskite phase. Here we study the nanoscale early-stage degradation of mixed-halide mixed-cation perovskite films under operation-like conditions using electrical scanning probe microscopy to investigate the formation of surface nanograin defects. We identify the nanograins as lead iodide and study their formation in ambient and inert environments with various optical, thermal, and electrical stress conditions in order to elucidate the different underlying degradation mechanisms. We find that the intrinsic instability is related to the polycrystalline morphology, where electrical bias stress leads to the build-up of charge at grain boundaries and lateral space charge gradients that destabilise the local perovskite lattice facilitating escape of the organic cation. This mechanism is accelerated by enhanced ionic mobility under optical excitation. Our findings highlight the importance of inhibiting the formation of local charge imbalance, either through compositions preventing ionic redistribution or local grain boundary passivation, in order to extend operational stability in perovskite photovoltaics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filipe Richheimer
- National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 0LW, UK.
- Centre for Engineering Materials, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | - David Toth
- Keysight Technologies GmbH, Linz, 4020, Austria
- Applied Experimental Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, 4020, Austria
| | - Bekele Hailegnaw
- Division of Soft Matter Physics and LIT Soft Materials Lab, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, 4040, Austria
- Department Soft Matter Physics (SoMaP), Johannes Kepler University Linz, 4040, Austria
| | - Mark A Baker
- Centre for Engineering Materials, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Robert A Dorey
- Centre for Engineering Materials, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | | | | | - Martin Kaltenbrunner
- Department Soft Matter Physics (SoMaP), Johannes Kepler University Linz, 4040, Austria
| | - Markus C Scharber
- Division of Soft Matter Physics and LIT Soft Materials Lab, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, 4040, Austria
| | - Georg Gramse
- Keysight Technologies GmbH, Linz, 4020, Austria
- Applied Experimental Biophysics, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, 4020, Austria
| | - Sebastian Wood
- National Physical Laboratory, Teddington, Middlesex, TW11 0LW, UK.
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Aarts M, Reiser A, Spolenak R, Alarcon-Llado E. Confined pulsed diffuse layer charging for nanoscale electrodeposition with an STM. NANOSCALE ADVANCES 2022; 4:1182-1190. [PMID: 35308601 PMCID: PMC8846379 DOI: 10.1039/d1na00779c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Regulating the state of the solid-liquid interface by means of electric fields is a powerful tool to control electrochemistry. In scanning probe systems, this can be confined closely to a scanning (nano)electrode by means of fast potential pulses, providing a way to probe the interface and control electrochemical reactions locally, as has been demonstrated in nanoscale electrochemical etching. For this purpose, it is important to know the spatial extent of the interaction between pulses applied to the tip, and the substrate. In this paper we use a framework of diffuse layer charging to describe the localization of electrical double layer charging in response to a potential pulse at the probe. Our findings are in good agreement with literature values obtained in electrochemical etching. We show that the pulse can be much more localized by limiting the diffusivity of the ions present in solution, by confined electrodeposition of cobalt in a dimethyl sulfoxide solution, using an electrochemical scanning tunnelling microscope. Finally, we demonstrate the deposition of cobalt nanostructures (<100 nm) using this method. The presented framework therefore provides a general route for predicting and controlling the time-dependent region of interaction between an electrochemical scanning probe and the surface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Aarts
- Center for Nanophotonics, AMOLF Science Park 109 Amsterdam Netherlands
| | - Alain Reiser
- Laboratory for Nanometallurgy, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10 Zürich Switzerland
| | - Ralph Spolenak
- Laboratory for Nanometallurgy, Department of Materials, ETH Zürich Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10 Zürich Switzerland
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Tang L, Zhang A, Mei Y, Xiao Q, Xu X, Wang W. NIR Light-Triggered Chemo-Phototherapy by ICG Functionalized MWNTs for Synergistic Tumor-Targeted Delivery. Pharmaceutics 2021; 13:pharmaceutics13122145. [PMID: 34959425 PMCID: PMC8709090 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics13122145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The combinational application of photothermal therapy (PTT), chemotherapy, and nanotechnology is a booming therapeutic strategy for cancer treatment. Multi-walled carbon nanotube (MWNT) is often utilized as drug carrier in biomedical fields with excellent photothermal properties, and indocyanine green (ICG) is a near-infrared (NIR) dye approved by FDA. In addition, ICG is also a photothermal agent that can strongly absorb light energy for tumor ablation. Herein, we explored a synergistic strategy by connecting MWNT and a kind of ICG derivate ICG-NH2 through hyaluronic acid (HA) that possesses CD44 receptor targeting ability, which largely enhanced the PTT effect of both MWNT and ICG-NH2. To realize the synergistic therapeutic effect of chemotherapy and phototherapy, doxorubicin (DOX) was attached on the wall of MWNT via π-π interaction to obtain the final MWNT-HA-ICG/DOX nanocomplexes. Both in vitro and in vivo experiments verified the great therapeutic efficacy of MWNT-HA-ICG/DOX nanocomplexes, which was characterized by improved photothermal performance, strengthened cytotoxicity, and elevated tumor growth inhibition based on MCF-7 tumor models. Therefore, this synergistic strategy we report here might offer a new idea with promising application prospect for cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.T.); (A.Z.); (Y.M.); (Q.X.); (X.X.)
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Preparations and Excipients, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Aining Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.T.); (A.Z.); (Y.M.); (Q.X.); (X.X.)
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Preparations and Excipients, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yijun Mei
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.T.); (A.Z.); (Y.M.); (Q.X.); (X.X.)
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Preparations and Excipients, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Qiaqia Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.T.); (A.Z.); (Y.M.); (Q.X.); (X.X.)
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Preparations and Excipients, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Xiangting Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.T.); (A.Z.); (Y.M.); (Q.X.); (X.X.)
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Preparations and Excipients, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, Department of Pharmaceutics, School of Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China; (L.T.); (A.Z.); (Y.M.); (Q.X.); (X.X.)
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Pharmaceutical Preparations and Excipients, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing 210009, China
- Correspondence:
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