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Diepenbroek E, Mehta S, Borneman Z, Hempenius MA, Kooij ES, Nijmeijer K, de Beer S. Advances in Membrane Separation for Biomaterial Dewatering. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2024; 40:4545-4566. [PMID: 38386509 PMCID: PMC10919095 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.3c03439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2023] [Revised: 02/05/2024] [Accepted: 02/06/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Biomaterials often contain large quantities of water (50-98%), and with the current transition to a more biobased economy, drying these materials will become increasingly important. Contrary to the standard, thermodynamically inefficient chemical and thermal drying methods, dewatering by membrane separation will provide a sustainable and efficient alternative. However, biomaterials can easily foul membrane surfaces, which is detrimental to the performance of current membrane separations. Improving the antifouling properties of such membranes is a key challenge. Other recent research has been dedicated to enhancing the permeate flux and selectivity. In this review, we present a comprehensive overview of the design requirements for and recent advances in dewatering of biomaterials using membranes. These recent developments offer a viable solution to the challenges of fouling and suboptimal performances. We focus on two emerging development strategies, which are the use of electric-field-assisted dewatering and surface functionalizations, in particular with hydrogels. Our overview concludes with a critical mention of the remaining challenges and possible research directions within these subfields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esli Diepenbroek
- Department
of Molecules & Materials, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - Sarthak Mehta
- Membrane
Materials and Processes, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Zandrie Borneman
- Membrane
Materials and Processes, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Mark A. Hempenius
- Department
of Molecules & Materials, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
| | - E. Stefan Kooij
- Physics
of Interfaces and Nanomaterials, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, 7500
AE Enschede, The
Netherlands
| | - Kitty Nijmeijer
- Membrane
Materials and Processes, Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemistry, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
| | - Sissi de Beer
- Department
of Molecules & Materials, MESA+ Institute, University of Twente, 7500 AE Enschede, The Netherlands
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Zhou J, Jing G, Zhao T, Tian F, Xu X, Zhao S. Unraveling Flow Effect on Capacitive Energy Extraction from Salinity Gradients. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:10052-10060. [PMID: 38367217 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c16738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/19/2024]
Abstract
The harvesting of salinity gradient energy through a capacitive double-layer expansion (CDLE) technique is directly associated with ion adsorption and desorption in electrodes. Herein, we show that energy extraction can be modulated by regulating ion adsorption/desorption through water flow. The flow effects on the output energy, capacitance, and energy density under practical conditions are systematically investigated from a theoretical perspective, upon which the optimal operating condition is identified for energy extraction. We demonstrate that the net charge accumulation displays a negative correlation with the water flow velocity and so does the surface charge density, and this causes a nontrivial variation in the magnitude of output energy when water flows are introduced. When high water flows are introduced in both the charging and discharging processes, the energy extraction can be significantly reduced by 47.69-49.32%. However, when a high flow is solely exerted in the discharging process, the energy extraction can be enhanced by 12.94-14.49% even at low operation voltages. This study not only offers a comprehensive understanding of the microscopic mechanisms of surface-engineered energy extraction with water flows but also provides a novel direction for energy extraction enhancement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingmin Zhou
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Petrochemical Resource Processing and Process Intensification Technology and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
| | - Gang Jing
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering and School of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Teng Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering and School of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
- Institute of Natural Sciences, Shanghai National Center for Applied Mathematics, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Fengrui Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering and School of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Xiaofei Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Engineering and School of Chemical Engineering, East China University of Science and Technology, Shanghai 200237, China
| | - Shuangliang Zhao
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Petrochemical Resource Processing and Process Intensification Technology and School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangxi University, Nanning 530004, China
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Tiago G, Cristóvão MB, Marques AP, Huertas R, Merino-Garcia I, Pereira VJ, Crespo JG, Velizarov S. A Study on Biofouling and Cleaning of Anion Exchange Membranes for Reverse Electrodialysis. MEMBRANES 2022; 12:membranes12070697. [PMID: 35877900 PMCID: PMC9316569 DOI: 10.3390/membranes12070697] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
This study covers the modification, (bio)fouling characterization, use, and cleaning of commercial heterogeneous anion exchange membranes (AEMs) to evaluate their feasibility for reverse electrodialysis (RED) applications. A surface modification with poly (acrylic) acid resulted in an improved monovalent perm-selectivity (decreased sulfate membrane transport rate). Moreover, we evaluated the (bio)fouling potential of the membrane using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), sodium dodecyl benzenesulfonate (SDBS), and Aeromonas hydrophila as model organic foulants and a biofoulant, respectively. A detailed characterization of the AEMs (water contact angle, ion exchange capacity (IEC), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), cyclic voltammetry (CV), and Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectra) was carried out, verifying that the presence of such foulants reduces IEC and the maximum current obtained by CV. However, only SDS and SDBS affected the contact angle values. Cleaning of the biofouled membranes using a sodium hypochlorite aqueous solution allows for (partially) recovering their initial properties. Furthermore, this work includes a fouling characterization using real surface and sea water matrixes, confirming the presence of several types of fouling microorganisms in natural streams. A lower adhesion of microorganisms (measured in terms of total bacteria counts) was observed for the modified membranes compared to the unmodified ones. Finally, we propose a cleaning strategy to mitigate biofouling in AEMs that could be easily applied in RED systems for an enhanced long-term process performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gonçalo Tiago
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (G.T.); (M.B.C.); (R.H.); (J.G.C.)
| | - Maria Beatriz Cristóvão
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (G.T.); (M.B.C.); (R.H.); (J.G.C.)
- IBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, 2780-901 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.P.M.); (V.J.P.)
| | - Ana Paula Marques
- IBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, 2780-901 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.P.M.); (V.J.P.)
| | - Rosa Huertas
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (G.T.); (M.B.C.); (R.H.); (J.G.C.)
- IBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, 2780-901 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.P.M.); (V.J.P.)
| | - Ivan Merino-Garcia
- Departamento de Ingenierías Química y Biomolecular, Universidad de Cantabria, Avda. Los Castros, s/n, 39005 Santander, Spain;
| | - Vanessa Jorge Pereira
- IBET-Instituto de Biologia Experimental e Tecnológica, Apartado 12, 2780-901 Oeiras, Portugal; (A.P.M.); (V.J.P.)
- Instituto de Tecnologia Química e Biológica António Xavier, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Av. da República, 2780-157 Oeiras, Portugal
| | - João Goulão Crespo
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (G.T.); (M.B.C.); (R.H.); (J.G.C.)
| | - Svetlozar Velizarov
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry, NOVA School of Science and Technology, Universidade NOVA de Lisboa, 2829-516 Caparica, Portugal; (G.T.); (M.B.C.); (R.H.); (J.G.C.)
- Correspondence:
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Mkpuma VO, Moheimani NR, Fischer K, Schulze A, Ennaceri H. Membrane surface zwitterionization for an efficient microalgal harvesting: A review. ALGAL RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2022.102797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Tang K, Zheng H, Du P, Zhou K. Simultaneous Fractionation, Desalination, and Dye Removal of Dye/Salt Mixtures by Carbon Cloth-Modified Flow-electrode Capacitive Deionization. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:8885-8896. [PMID: 35658453 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c00982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The critical challenges of using electromembrane processes [e.g., electrodialysis and flow-electrode capacitive deionization (FCDI)] to recycle resources (e.g., water, salts, and organic compounds) from wastewater are the fractionation of dissolved ionic matter, the removal/recovery of organic components during desalination, and membrane antifouling. This study realized the simultaneous fractionation, desalination, and dye removal/recovery (FDR) treatment of dye/salt mixtures through a simple but effective approach, that is, using a carbon cloth-modified FCDI (CC-FCDI) unit, in which the carbon cloth layer was attached to the surface of each ion-exchange membrane (IEM). The IEMs and carbon-based flow-electrodes were responsible for the fractionation and desalination of dye and salt ions, while the carbon cloth layers contributed to the active membrane antifouling and dye removal/recovery by the electrosorption mechanism. Attributed to such features, the CC-FCDI unit accomplished the effective FDR treatment of dye/salt mixtures with wide ranges of salt and dye concentrations (5-20 g L-1 NaCl and 200-800 ppm methylene blue) and different dye components (cationic and anionic dyes) under various applied voltages (1.2-3.2 V). Moreover, the active membrane antifouling by virtue of the carbon cloth facilitated the excellent and sustainable FDR performance of CC-FCDI. The removal/recovery of dyes from the carbon cloth strongly depends on the characteristics of dye molecules, the surface properties of the carbon cloth, and the local pH at the IEM/CC interfaces. This study sheds light on the strategies of using multifunctional layer-modified FCDI units to reclaim resources from various high-salinity organic wastewater.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kexin Tang
- Environmental Process Modelling Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore 637141, Singapore
| | - Han Zheng
- Environmental Process Modelling Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore 637141, Singapore
- Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
| | - Penghui Du
- State Environmental Protection Key Laboratory of Integrated Surface Water-Groundwater Pollution Control, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Southern University of Science and Technology, Shenzhen 518055, China
| | - Kun Zhou
- Environmental Process Modelling Centre, Nanyang Environment and Water Research Institute, Nanyang Technological University, 1 Cleantech Loop, Singapore 637141, Singapore
- Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
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Mkpuma VO, Moheimani NR, Ennaceri H. Microalgal dewatering with focus on filtration and antifouling strategies: A review. ALGAL RES 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2021.102588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Merino-Garcia I, Velizarov S. New insights into the definition of membrane cleaning strategies to diminish the fouling impact in ion exchange membrane separation processes. Sep Purif Technol 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2021.119445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Li K, Yu S, Li D, Ding L, Wang W, Xie Z, Park EJ, Fujimoto C, Cullen DA, Kim YS, Zhang FY. Engineered Thin Diffusion Layers for Anion-Exchange Membrane Electrolyzer Cells with Outstanding Performance. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:50957-50964. [PMID: 34665589 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c14693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Anion-exchange membrane electrolyzer cells (AEMECs) are one of the most promising technologies for carbon-neutral hydrogen production. Over the past few years, the performance and durability of AEMECs have substantially improved. Herein, we report an engineered liquid/gas diffusion layer (LGDL) with tunable pore morphologies that enables the high performance of AEMECs. The comparison with a commercial titanium foam in the electrolyzer indicated that the engineered LGDL with thin-flat and straight-pore structures significantly improved the interfacial contacts, mass transport, and activation of more reaction sites, leading to outstanding performance. We obtained a current density of 2.0 A/cm2 at 1.80 V with an efficiency of up to 81.9% at 60 °C under 0.1 M NaOH-fed conditions. The as-achieved high performance in this study provides insight to design advanced LGDLs for the production of low-cost and high-efficiency AEMECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kui Li
- Nanodynamics and High-Efficiency Lab for Propulsion and Power, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace & Biomedical Engineering, UT Space Institute, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tullahoma, Tennessee 37388, United States
| | - Shule Yu
- Nanodynamics and High-Efficiency Lab for Propulsion and Power, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace & Biomedical Engineering, UT Space Institute, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tullahoma, Tennessee 37388, United States
| | - Dongguo Li
- MPA-11: Materials Synthesis and Integrated Devices, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Lei Ding
- Nanodynamics and High-Efficiency Lab for Propulsion and Power, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace & Biomedical Engineering, UT Space Institute, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tullahoma, Tennessee 37388, United States
| | - Weitian Wang
- Nanodynamics and High-Efficiency Lab for Propulsion and Power, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace & Biomedical Engineering, UT Space Institute, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tullahoma, Tennessee 37388, United States
| | - Zhiqiang Xie
- Nanodynamics and High-Efficiency Lab for Propulsion and Power, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace & Biomedical Engineering, UT Space Institute, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tullahoma, Tennessee 37388, United States
| | - Eun Joo Park
- MPA-11: Materials Synthesis and Integrated Devices, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Cy Fujimoto
- Nanoscale Sciences Department, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185, United States
| | - David A Cullen
- Center for Nanophase Materials Science, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, Tennessee 37831, United States
| | - Yu Seung Kim
- MPA-11: Materials Synthesis and Integrated Devices, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - Feng-Yuan Zhang
- Nanodynamics and High-Efficiency Lab for Propulsion and Power, Department of Mechanical, Aerospace & Biomedical Engineering, UT Space Institute, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tullahoma, Tennessee 37388, United States
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Laucirica G, Toimil-Molares ME, Trautmann C, Marmisollé W, Azzaroni O. Nanofluidic osmotic power generators - advanced nanoporous membranes and nanochannels for blue energy harvesting. Chem Sci 2021; 12:12874-12910. [PMID: 34745520 PMCID: PMC8513907 DOI: 10.1039/d1sc03581a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/25/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The increase of energy demand added to the concern for environmental pollution linked to energy generation based on the combustion of fossil fuels has motivated the study and development of new sustainable ways for energy harvesting. Among the different alternatives, the opportunity to generate energy by exploiting the osmotic pressure difference between water sources of different salinities has attracted considerable attention. It is well-known that this objective can be accomplished by employing ion-selective dense membranes. However, so far, the current state of this technology has shown limited performance which hinders its real application. In this context, advanced nanostructured membranes (nanoporous membranes) with high ion flux and selectivity enabling the enhancement of the output power are perceived as a promising strategy to overcome the existing barriers in this technology. While the utilization of nanoporous membranes for osmotic power generation is a relatively new field and therefore, its application for large-scale production is still uncertain, there have been major developments at the laboratory scale in recent years that demonstrate its huge potential. In this review, we introduce a comprehensive analysis of the main fundamental concepts behind osmotic energy generation and how the utilization of nanoporous membranes with tailored ion transport can be a key to the development of high-efficiency blue energy harvesting systems. Also, the document discusses experimental issues related to the different ways to fabricate this new generation of membranes and the different experimental set-ups for the energy-conversion measurements. We highlight the importance of optimizing the experimental variables through the detailed analysis of the influence on the energy capability of geometrical features related to the nanoporous membranes, surface charge density, concentration gradient, temperature, building block integration, and others. Finally, we summarize some representative studies in up-scaled membranes and discuss the main challenges and perspectives of this emerging field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregorio Laucirica
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, CONICET CC 16 Suc. 4 1900 La Plata Argentina http://softmatter.quimica.unlp.edu.ar www.twitter.com/softmatterlab
| | | | - Christina Trautmann
- GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung 64291 Darmstadt Germany
- Technische Universität Darmstadt, Materialwissenschaft 64287 Darmstadt Germany
| | - Waldemar Marmisollé
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, CONICET CC 16 Suc. 4 1900 La Plata Argentina http://softmatter.quimica.unlp.edu.ar www.twitter.com/softmatterlab
| | - Omar Azzaroni
- Instituto de Investigaciones Fisicoquímicas Teóricas y Aplicadas (INIFTA), Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, CONICET CC 16 Suc. 4 1900 La Plata Argentina http://softmatter.quimica.unlp.edu.ar www.twitter.com/softmatterlab
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Jia X, Ji H, Zhang G, Xing J, Shen S, Zhou X, Sun S, Wu X, Yu D, Wyman I. Smart Self-Cleaning Membrane via the Blending of an Upper Critical Solution Temperature Diblock Copolymer with PVDF. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:38712-38721. [PMID: 34369743 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c10687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Poly(2,2,2-trifluoroethyl methacrylate)-b-poly(imidazoled glycidyl methacrylate-co-diethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate) (PTFEMA-b-P(iGMA-co-MEO2MA)) containing an upper critical solution temperature (UCST) polymer chain was prepared and blended with poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF) to produce a thermoresponsive membrane with smart self-cleaning performance. The successful preparation of the membrane was demonstrated by attenuated total reflection-Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy characterization. The membrane shows UCST performance, and its flux changes with the filtrate temperature as the UCST polymer chain stretches out and contracts in response to various temperatures. In addition, the UCST polymer chain can disrupt the foulant and push it away from the membrane when the temperature is above the UCST and thus enables membranes to exhibit a smart self-cleaning behavior. To the best of our knowledge, this work is the first report of a smart self-cleaning membrane based on the blending of a diblock copolymer containing a UCST polymer chain with PVDF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinying Jia
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Separation and Purification Materials & Technologies, School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, People's Republic of China
| | - Hailan Ji
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Separation and Purification Materials & Technologies, School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, People's Republic of China
| | - Ganwei Zhang
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Separation and Purification Materials & Technologies, School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiale Xing
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Separation and Purification Materials & Technologies, School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, People's Republic of China
| | - Shusu Shen
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Separation and Purification Materials & Technologies, School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoji Zhou
- Jiangsu Province Engineering Research Center of Separation and Purification Materials & Technologies, School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, People's Republic of China
| | - Suling Sun
- Institute of Agro-product Safety and Nutrition, Zhejiang Academy of Agricultural Science, Hangzhou 310021, People's Republic of China
| | - Xu Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Danfeng Yu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Ian Wyman
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, 90 Bader Lane, Kingston K7L 3N6, Canada
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