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Nakagawa Y, Shiratsuchi Y, Shibayama T, Takeguchi M. Ultraviolet Light-Induced Surface Changes of Tungsten Oxide in Air: Combined Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy and X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy Analysis. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 14:1486. [PMID: 39330643 PMCID: PMC11435345 DOI: 10.3390/nano14181486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2024] [Revised: 09/09/2024] [Accepted: 09/11/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024]
Abstract
Scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analyses were combined to clarify the ultraviolet light-induced surface changes of WO3 in air. Identical-location STEM (IL-STEM) analysis showed that the WO3 particle surface was covered with an amorphous thin film after ultraviolet irradiation in air. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy analysis showed that hydrocarbon decomposition and the formation of carboxyl/hydroxyl species occurred. These results suggested that the amorphous thin films consisted of photocatalytic oxidative species of hydrocarbon. The IL-STEM analysis could detect small light-induced changes. This technique will be useful for the microscopic characterization of photocatalysis or photoinduced hydrophilic conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Nakagawa
- Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N-13, W-8, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Shiratsuchi
- Graduate School of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N-13, W-8, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
| | - Tamaki Shibayama
- Faculty of Engineering, Hokkaido University, N-13, W-8, Sapporo 060-8628, Japan
| | - Masaki Takeguchi
- National Institute for Materials Science, 1-2-1 Sengen, Tsukuba 305-0047, Japan
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2
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Lv X, Zhang G, Wang M, Li G, Deng J, Zhong J. How titanium and iron are integrated into hematite to enhance the photoelectrochemical water oxidation: a review. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:1406-1420. [PMID: 36594624 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp04969d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Hematite has been considered as a promising photoanode candidate for photoelectrochemical (PEC) water oxidation and has attracted numerous interests in the past decades. However, intrinsic drawbacks drastically lower its photocatalytic activity. Ti-based modifications including Ti-doping, Fe2O3/Fe2TiO5 heterostructures, TiO2 passivation layers, and Ti-containing underlayers have shown great potential in enhancing the PEC conversion efficiency of hematite. Moreover, the combination of Ti-based modifications with various strategies towards more efficient hematite photoanodes has been widely investigated. Nevertheless, a corresponding comprehensive overview, especially with the most recent working mechanisms, is still lacking, limiting further improvement. In this respect, by summarizing the recent progress in Ti-modified hematite photoanodes, this review aims to demonstrate how the integration of titanium and iron atoms into hematite influences the PEC properties by tuning the carrier behaviours. It will provide more cues for the rational design of high-performance hematite photoanodes towards future practical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoxin Lv
- Institute for Energy Research, Automotive Engineering Research Institute, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China.
| | - Gaoteng Zhang
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials Laboratory (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Negative Carbon Technologies, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China.
| | - Menglian Wang
- Institute for Energy Research, Automotive Engineering Research Institute, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China.
| | - Guoqing Li
- Institute for Energy Research, Automotive Engineering Research Institute, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China.
| | - Jiujun Deng
- Institute for Energy Research, Automotive Engineering Research Institute, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, 212013, China.
| | - Jun Zhong
- Institute of Functional Nano and Soft Materials Laboratory (FUNSOM), Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Advanced Negative Carbon Technologies, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China.
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3
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Zhao Z, Qu M, Zhu M, Shi H, Luo X, Guo T, Sun Q, Wang L, Zheng H. Crystal Facet-Modulated WO 3 Nanoplate Photoanode for Photoelectrochemical Glyoxal Semi-oxidation into Glyoxylic Acid. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:48752-48761. [PMID: 36251536 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c14442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Transforming glyoxal to value-added glyoxylic acid (GA) is highly desirable but challenging due to the uncontrollable over-oxidation. In this work, we report on a first demonstration of semi-oxidation of glyoxal with high selectivity (86.5%) and activity on WO3 nanoplate photoanode through the photoelectrochemical strategy. The optimization of reactivity was achieved via crystal facet regulation, showing a satisfactory GA production rate of 308.4 mmol m-2 h-2, 84.0% faradaic efficiency, and 4.3% total solar-to-glyoxylic acid efficiency on WO3 with enriched {200} facets at 1.6 V versus RHE. WO3 with a high {200} facet ratio exhibits more efficient electron-hole transfer kinetics, resulting in the facilitated formation of hydroxyl radicals (•OH) and glyoxal radicals. Meanwhile, the theoretical calculation results indicate that the high selectivity and activity come from the strong adsorption ability for glyoxal and the low reaction energy for glyoxal radical generation on the (200) facets of WO3. Moreover, the high energy demand toward oxalic acid production on WO3 leads to the exciting semi-oxidation process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhefei Zhao
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou310032, P. R. China
| | - Mengnan Qu
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou215123, P. R. China
| | - Mengkai Zhu
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou310032, P. R. China
| | - Hongmei Shi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou310032, P. R. China
| | - Xingyu Luo
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou310032, P. R. China
| | - Tianyang Guo
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou310032, P. R. China
| | - Qiao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Radiation Medicine and Protection, Collaborative Innovation Center of Radiation Medicine of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, School for Radiological and Interdisciplinary Sciences, Soochow University, Suzhou215123, P. R. China
| | - Lianzhou Wang
- Nanomaterials Centre, School of Chemical Engineering and Australian Institute for Bioengineering and Nanotechnology, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland4072, Australia
| | - Huajun Zheng
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou310032, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory Breeding Base of Green Chemistry Synthesis Technology, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou310032, P. R. China
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4
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Kumar Mohanta M, Kanta Sahu T, Alam S, Qureshi M. Tuning the Electronic Structure of Monoclinic Tungsten Oxide Nanoblocks by Indium Doping for Boosted Photoelectrochemical Performance. Chem Asian J 2020; 15:3886-3896. [PMID: 33022881 DOI: 10.1002/asia.202000787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Revised: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Photoelectrochemical (PEC) water oxidation, a desirable strategy to meet future energy demands, has several bottle-necks to resolve. One of the prominent issues is the availability of charge carriers at the surface reaction site to promote water oxidation. Of the several approaches, metal dopants to enhance the carrier density of the semiconductors, is an important one. In this work, we have studied the effect of In-doping on monoclinic WO3 nanoblocks, growing vertically over fluorine-doped tin oxide (FTO) without the aid of any seed layer. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) data reveals that In3+ ions are partially occupying the W6+ ions in In-doped WO3 photoanode. In3+ ions are offering better performance by adding additional charge carriers for amplifying the expression of the number of carriers. The maximum current density value of 2.18 mA/cm2 has been provided by the optimized In-doped WO3 photoanode with 3 wt% indium doping at 1.23 V vs. RHE, which is ∼3 times higher than that of undoped monoclinic WO3 photoanode. Mott-Schottky (MS) analysis reveals charge carrier density (ND ) for In-doped WO3 photoanode has been enhanced by a factor of 3. An average Faradic yield of ∼90 percent has been achieved which can serve as a model system using In3+ as a dopant for an inexpensive and attractive method for enhanced WO3 based PEC water oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manoj Kumar Mohanta
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, 781039, India
| | - Tushar Kanta Sahu
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, 781039, India
| | - Suhaib Alam
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, 781039, India
| | - Mohammad Qureshi
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati, Assam, 781039, India
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5
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Han HS, Park W, Hwang SW, Kim H, Sim Y, Surendran S, Sim U, Cho IS. (0 2 0)-Textured tungsten trioxide nanostructure with enhanced photoelectrochemical activity. J Catal 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jcat.2020.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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6
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Li T, Mo JY, Weekes DM, Dettelbach KE, Jansonius RP, Sammis GM, Berlinguette CP. Photoelectrochemical Decomposition of Lignin Model Compound on a BiVO 4 Photoanode. CHEMSUSCHEM 2020; 13:3622-3626. [PMID: 32369260 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202001134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The photoelectrochemical decomposition of lignin model compounds at a BiVO4 photoanode is demonstrated with simulated sunlight and an applied bias of 2.0 V. These prototypical lignin model compounds are photoelectrochemically converted into the corresponding aryl aldehyde and phenol derivatives in a single step with conversion of up to ≈64 % over 20 h. Control experiments suggest that vanadium sites are electrocatalytically active, which precludes the need for a redox mediator in solution. This feature of the system is corroborated by a layer of V2 O5 deposited on BiVO4 serving to boost the conversion by 10 %. Our methodology capitalizes on the reactive power of sunlight to drive reactions that have only been studied previously by electrochemical or catalytic methods. The use of a BiVO4 photoanode to drive lignin model decomposition therefore provides a new platform to extract valuable aromatic chemical feedstocks using solar energy, electricity and biomass as the only inputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tengfei Li
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Jia Yi Mo
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - David M Weekes
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Kevan E Dettelbach
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Ryan P Jansonius
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Glenn M Sammis
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada
| | - Curtis P Berlinguette
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of British Columbia, 2360 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
- Stewart Blusson Quantum Matter Institute, The University of British Columbia, 2355 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR), 661 University Avenue, Toronto, ON, M5G 1M1, Canada
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7
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Zhou Z, Wu S, Xiao C, Li L, Shao W, Ding H, Wen L, Li X. Self-improvement of solar water oxidation for the continuously-irradiated hematite photoanode. Dalton Trans 2019; 48:15151-15159. [PMID: 31565712 DOI: 10.1039/c9dt03368h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Improving bulk- or surface-properties has been found as an effective route to regulate and enhance the photoelectrochemical (PEC) performances of some metal-oxide photoelectrodes. However, both bulk and surface self-improvement resulting from the photocharging (PC) effect is rarely reported and as a result the underlying mechanism of the PC effect is not fully understood. Here, we demonstrate that the hematite photoanode integrated with Sn doping and a TiO2 underlayer shows a substantial increase in the photocurrent density (i.e., from 0.69 to 1.12 mA cm-2 at 1.23 V relative to the standard hydrogen electrode) and a cathodic shift of the onset potential after being irradiated by a one-sun simulator for 12 h. The primary reasons for these can be categorized into two fundamental factors: (1) the enhanced bulk conductivity and the resulting decrease in carrier bulk recombination from the gradually increasing ratio of Fe2+ and Fe3+; (2) the reduced carrier surface recombination from the photogenerated passivation layer. Ultimately, both the bulk and surface electrical properties of the hematite photoanode are substantially self-improved under continuous irradiation. This work deepens the understanding of the PC effect and proves that it is a promising technique for the PEC-performance enhancement of the hematite photoanode.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongyuan Zhou
- School of Optoelectronic Science and Engineering & Collaborative Innovation Center of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China.
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8
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Bi X, Bai P, Lv J, Yang T, Chai Z, Wang X, Wang C. Regulating effect of heterojunctions on electrocatalytic oxidation of methanol for Pt/WO3-NaTaO3 catalysts. Dalton Trans 2019; 48:3061-3073. [DOI: 10.1039/c8dt05045g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Pt/WO3-NaTaO3 composite catalysts for different W/Ta molar ratios were obtained via a facile hydrothermal method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Bi
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Department
- Inner Mongolia University
- Inner Mongolia 010021
- People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Bai
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Department
- Inner Mongolia University
- Inner Mongolia 010021
- People's Republic of China
| | - Juanjuan Lv
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Department
- Inner Mongolia University
- Inner Mongolia 010021
- People's Republic of China
| | - Ting Yang
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Department
- Inner Mongolia University
- Inner Mongolia 010021
- People's Republic of China
| | - Zhanli Chai
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Department
- Inner Mongolia University
- Inner Mongolia 010021
- People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaojing Wang
- Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Department
- Inner Mongolia University
- Inner Mongolia 010021
- People's Republic of China
| | - Cheng Wang
- Institute for New Energy Materials and Low-carbon Technologies
- Tianjin University of Technology
- Tianjin 300384
- People's Republic of China
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9
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Cen J, Wu Q, Yan D, Zhang W, Zhao Y, Tong X, Liu M, Orlov A. New aspects of improving the performance of WO3 thin films for photoelectrochemical water splitting by tuning the ultrathin depletion region. RSC Adv 2019; 9:899-905. [PMID: 35517607 PMCID: PMC9059637 DOI: 10.1039/c8ra08875f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In this work, we explored a facile, scalable and effective method for substantially enhancing photocurrent and incident-photon-to-current efficiency of WO3 thin-film photoanodes by a mild reduction treatment under low oxygen pressure. Experimental data from photoelectrochemical and electrochemical impedance spectroscopies have shown that such treatment can increase the charge carrier density on WO3 photoanode surfaces resulting in improvements in hole collection efficiency and reduction in charge recombination. Despite a much thinner layer of WO3 (about 500 nm) compared to those in other published studies, the electrodes exhibited an ultra-high photocurrent density of 1.81 mA cm−2 at 1.23 V vs. RHE. This current density is one of the highest ones among WO3-based photoanodes described in literature. The proposed surface modulation approach offers an effective and scalable method to prepare high-performance thin film photoanodes for photoelectrochemical water splitting. Surface modulation approach offers an effective and scalable method for high-performance WO3 photoanodes.![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiajie Cen
- Department of Materials and Science Engineering
- Stony Brook University
- New York
- USA
| | - Qiyuan Wu
- Department of Materials and Science Engineering
- Stony Brook University
- New York
- USA
| | - Danhua Yan
- Department of Materials and Science Engineering
- Stony Brook University
- New York
- USA
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials
| | - Wenrui Zhang
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials
- Brookhaven National Laboratory
- New York
- USA
| | - Yue Zhao
- Department of Chemistry
- Stony Brook University
- New York
- USA
| | - Xiao Tong
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials
- Brookhaven National Laboratory
- New York
- USA
| | - Mingzhao Liu
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials
- Brookhaven National Laboratory
- New York
- USA
| | - Alexander Orlov
- Department of Materials and Science Engineering
- Stony Brook University
- New York
- USA
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10
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Venugopal A, Smith WA. Light induced formation of a surface heterojunction in photocharged CuWO4 photoanodes. Faraday Discuss 2019; 215:175-191. [DOI: 10.1039/c8fd00179k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Photocharging of CuWO4 photoanodes enhances its water oxidation kinetics as a result of improved charge separation near the electrode/electrolyte interface post photocharging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anirudh Venugopal
- Materials for Energy Conversion and Storage (MECS)
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Faculty of Applied Sciences
- Delft University of Technology
- Delft 2629HZ
| | - Wilson A. Smith
- Materials for Energy Conversion and Storage (MECS)
- Department of Chemical Engineering
- Faculty of Applied Sciences
- Delft University of Technology
- Delft 2629HZ
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11
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Gayathri P, Sajitha S, Vijitha I, Shaiju S, Remya R, Deb B. Tuning of physical and electrochemical properties of nanocrystalline tungsten oxide through ultraviolet photoactivation. Electrochim Acta 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2018.04.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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12
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13
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Li J, Lei N, Guo L, Song Q, Liang Z. Constructing h-BN/Bi2
WO6
Quantum Dot Hybrid with Fast Charge Separation and Enhanced Photoelectrochemical Performance by using h-BN for Hole Transfer. ChemElectroChem 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201701056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Junqi Li
- School of Materials Science and Engineering; Shaanxi University of Science and Technology; Xi'an 710021 P. R. China
| | - Nan Lei
- School of Materials Science and Engineering; Shaanxi University of Science and Technology; Xi'an 710021 P. R. China
| | - Liu Guo
- School of Materials Science and Engineering; Shaanxi University of Science and Technology; Xi'an 710021 P. R. China
| | - Qianqian Song
- School of Materials Science and Engineering; Shaanxi University of Science and Technology; Xi'an 710021 P. R. China
| | - Zheng Liang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering; Shaanxi University of Science and Technology; Xi'an 710021 P. R. China
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14
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MoS2 quantum dots interspersed WO3 nanoplatelet arrays with enhanced photoelectrochemical activity. Electrochim Acta 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2017.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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15
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Li T, Kasahara T, He J, Dettelbach KE, Sammis GM, Berlinguette CP. Photoelectrochemical oxidation of organic substrates in organic media. Nat Commun 2017; 8:390. [PMID: 28855502 PMCID: PMC5577226 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-017-00420-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2017] [Accepted: 06/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a global effort to convert sunlight into fuels by photoelectrochemically splitting water to form hydrogen fuels, but the dioxygen byproduct bears little economic value. This raises the important question of whether higher value commodities can be produced instead of dioxygen. We report here photoelectrochemistry at a BiVO4 photoanode involving the oxidation of substrates in organic media. The use of MeCN instead of water enables a broader set of chemical transformations to be performed (e.g., alcohol oxidation and C-H activation/oxidation), while suppressing photocorrosion of BiVO4 that otherwise occurs readily in water, and sunlight reduces the electrical energy required to drive organic transformations by 60%. These collective results demonstrate the utility of using photoelectrochemical cells to mediate organic transformations that otherwise require expensive and toxic reagents or catalysts.Photoelectrochemical water splitting is a promising method for H2 fuel production, but the O2 by-product generated has little economic value. Here, Berlinguette and colleagues demonstrate that BiVO4 photoanodes immersed in organic media can instead perform valuable alcohol oxidation and C-H functionalization reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tengfei Li
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada, BC V6T 1Z1
| | - Takahito Kasahara
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada, BC V6T 1Z1
| | - Jingfu He
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada, BC V6T 1Z1
| | - Kevan E Dettelbach
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada, BC V6T 1Z1
| | - Glenn M Sammis
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada, BC V6T 1Z1.
| | - Curtis P Berlinguette
- Department of Chemistry, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada, BC V6T 1Z1. .,Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada, BC V6T 1Z1. .,Stewart Blusson Quantum Matter Institute and Department of Chemical ‖ Biological Engineering, The University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, Canada, BC V6T 1Z1.
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