Development of Bioactive PEGylated Nanostructured Platforms for Sequential Delivery of Doxorubicin and Imatinib to Overcome Drug Resistance in Metastatic Tumors

Design strategy and research progress of multifunctional nanoparticles in lung cancer therapy

INTRODUCTION

Lung cancer is one of the cancer types with the highest mortality rate, exploring a more effective treatment modality that improves therapeutic efficacy while mitigating side effects is now an urgent requirement. Designing multifunctional nanoparticles can be used to overcome the limitations of drugs and conventional drug delivery systems. Nanotechnology has been widely researched, and through different needs, suitable nanocarriers can be selected to load anti-cancer drugs to improve the therapeutic effect. It is foreseeable that with the rapid development of nanotechnology, more and more lung cancer patients will benefit from nanotechnology. This paper reviews the merits of various multifunctional nanoparticles in the treatment of lung cancer to provide novel ideas for lung cancer treatment.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on summarizing various nanoparticles for targeted lung cancer therapy and their advantages and disadvantages, using nanoparticles loaded with anti-cancer drugs, delivered to lung cancer sites, enhancing drug half-life, improving anti-cancer drug efficacy and reducing side effects.

EXPERT OPINION

The delivery mode of nanoparticles with superior pharmacokinetic properties in the in vivo circulation enhances the half-life of the drug, and provides tissue-targeted selectivity and the ability to overcome biological barriers, bringing a revolution in the field of oncology.

Modified Aerotaxy for the Plug-in Manufacture of Cell-Penetrating Fenton Nanoagents for Reinforcing Chemodynamic Cancer Therapy

The assemblies of anisotropic nanomaterials have attracted considerable interest in advanced tumor therapeutics because of the extended surfaces for loading of active molecules and the extraordinary responses to external stimuli for combinatorial therapies. These nanomaterials were usually constructed through templated or seed-mediated hydrothermal reactions, but the lack of uniformity in size and morphology, as well as the process complexities from multiple separation and purification steps, impede their practical use in cancer nanotherapy. Gas-phase epitaxy, also called aerotaxy (AT), has been introduced as an innovative method for the continuous assembly of anisotropic nanomaterials with a uniform distribution. This process does not require expensive crystal substrates and high vacuum conditions. Nevertheless, AT has been used limitedly to build high-aspect-ratio semiconductor nanomaterials. With these considerations, a modified AT was designed for the continuous in-flight assembly of the cell-penetrating Fenton nanoagents (Mn-Fe CaCO₃ (AT) and Mn-Fe SiO₂ (AT)) in a single-pass gas flow because cellular internalization activity is essential for cancer nanotherapeutics. The modified AT of Mn-Fe CaCO₃ and Mn-Fe SiO₂ to generate surface nanoroughness significantly enhanced the cellular internalization capability because of the preferential contact mode with the cancer cell membrane for Fenton reaction-induced apoptosis. In addition, it was even workable for doxorubicin (DOX)-resistant cancer cells after DOX loading on the nanoagents. After combining with immune-checkpoint blockers (antiprogrammed death-ligand 1 antibodies), the antitumor effect was improved further with no systemic toxicity as chemo-immuno-chemodynamic combination therapeutics despite the absence of targeting ligands and external stimuli.

Drug delivery based on chitosan, β-cyclodextrin and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose as well as nanocarriers for advanced leukemia treatment

Medicine/nanotechnology as a new and applicable technique according to drug delivery systems has gained great consideration for cancer treatment. Polysaccharides including, cellulose, β-cyclodextrin and sodium carboxymethyl cellulose and chitosan as natural bio-materials, are appropriate candidates for designing and formulations of these nanosystems because of the exceptional advantages such as bio-compatibility, bio-degradability, non-toxicity, and gelling characteristics. An intelligent drug delivery platform based on these hybrids nowadays is developed, which can be used for dual-responsive dual-drug delivery. Nanotechnology accompany with biological molecules has been carefully considered to decrease the drawbacks of conventional cancer treatments. Consequently, this review is intended to state and investigate on the latest development on the combination treatment of platforms based on the hybrids of anticancer drugs/nanoparticles/Polysaccharides in the fields of biomedical therapeutics and cancer therapy owing to the bio-compatibility, great surface area, good chemical and mechanical features, the challenges and future perspectives are reported as well.

Novel polysaccharide building hybrid nanoparticles: remodelling TAMs to target ERα-positive breast cancer

With the increasing number of oncology patients and the use of chemotherapeutic agents, tumour multidrug resistance is becoming more and more prevalent. The search for new tumour treatment strategies to overcome tumour multidrug resistance is urgent. In this study, we designed GSH and ROS dual-responsive tumour-associated macrophages (TAMs)-targeted nanoparticles (NPs) for the co-delivery of the clinical first-line anti-breast cancer chemotherapy drug paclitaxel (PTX) and baicalin (Bai), which re-educates TAMs to alter their phenotype. We synthesised oligohyaluronic acid-mannose-folic acid (oHA-Man-FA, HMF) and astragalus polysaccharide-dithiodipropionic acid-paeoniflorol (APS-S-Pae, ASP), two hybrid materials that can self-assemble in water to form hybrid nanoparticles (HP-NPs) co-loaded with paclitaxel and baicalin (HP-NPs@PTX/Bai). The experimental results show that our designed hybrid nanoparticles can be specifically released in the tumour microenvironment and deliver the antitumor drug PTX as well as Bai, which reshapes the phenotype of TAMs, to the tumour site. The hybrid nanoparticles not only effectively re-educated TAMs from M2 TAM to M1 TAM, but also ameliorated the cytotoxic side effects caused by free PTX and provided better tumour suppression than free PTX and HP.

Dasatinib self-assembled nanoparticles decorated with hyaluronic acid for targeted treatment of tumors to overcome multidrug resistance

Multidrug resistance (MDR) and lack of targeting specificity are the main reasons why traditional drug therapies fail and produce toxic side effects in cancer chemotherapy. In order to increase targeting specificity and maximize therapeutic efficacy, new intelligent drug delivery systems are needed. In this study, we prepared the hyaluronic acid (HA) conjugated dasatinib (DAS) and D-α-tocopherol acid polyethylene glycolsuccinate (TPGS) copolymer nanoparticles (THD-NPs). The water solubility of the hydrophobic drug DAS was improved by chemically linking with HA. HA can bind to the over-expressed CD44 protein of tumor cells to increase targeting specificity, TPGS can inhibit the activity of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), and increase the intracellular accumulation of drugs. The prepared drug-loaded nanoparticle has a particle size of 82.23 ± 1.07 nm with good in vitro stability. Our in vitro studies showed that THD-NPs can be released more rapidly in a weakly acidic environment (pH = 5.5) than in a normal physiological environment (pH = 7.4), which can realize the selective release of nanoparticles in tumor cells. Compared to free drugs, THD-NPs showed more efficient cellular uptake, effectively increased the cytotoxic effect of DAS on nasopharyngeal carcinoma HNE1 cells drug resistance HNE1/DDP cells and increased the accumulation of drugs in HNE1/DDP cells, which may be due to the inhibitory effect of TPGS on the efflux function of P-gp. In vivo experiments showed that THD-NPs can effectively inhibit tumor growth without obvious side effects. In conclusion, the targeted and pH-sensitive nanosystem, we designed has great potential to overcome drug resistance and increase therapeutic effects in cancer treatment.

Adjudin-loaded redox-sensitive paclitaxel-prodrug micelles for overcoming multidrug resistance with efficient targeted Colon cancer therapy

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is the primary cause for the failure of chemotherapy in the treatment of colon cancer. Recent research has indicated that the combination of a chemotherapeutic agent and a mitochondrial inhibitor might represent a promising strategy to help overcome MDR. However, for this approach to be clinically effective, it is important that the two drugs can be actively and simultaneously delivered into tumor cells at an optimal ratio and completely released drug within cells. To address these challenges, we designed and prepared a folate receptor-targeted and redox-responsive drug delivery system (FA-ss-P/A) that was able to co-deliver paclitaxel (PTX) and adjudin (ADD) to reverse colon cancer MDR. The PTX prodrug was obtained by conjugating PTX to dextrin via a disulfide-linkage. Then, folic acid (FA) was modified on the PTX prodrug. Finally, ADD, a mitochondrial inhibitor, was encapsulated in the PTX prodrug-formed micelles. A series of in vitro and in vivo experiments subsequently demonstrated that FA-ss-P/A can effectively reverse MDR by increasing cell uptake, inhibiting PTX efflux, and improving drug release.

The impact of molecular tumor profiling on the design strategies for targeting myeloid leukemia and EGFR/CD44-positive solid tumors

Nanomedicine has emerged as a novel cancer treatment and diagnostic modality, whose design constantly evolves towards increasing the safety and efficacy of the chemotherapeutic and diagnostic protocols. Molecular diagnostics, which create a great amount of data related to the unique molecular signatures of each tumor subtype, have emerged as an important tool for detailed profiling of tumors. They provide an opportunity to develop targeting agents for early detection and diagnosis, and to select the most effective combinatorial treatment options. Alongside, the design of the nanoscale carriers needs to cope with novel trends of molecular screening. Also, multiple targeting ligands needed for robust and specific interactions with the targeted cell populations have to be introduced, which should result in substantial improvements in safety and efficacy of the cancer treatment. This article will focus on novel design strategies for nanoscale drug delivery systems, based on the unique molecular signatures of myeloid leukemia and EGFR/CD44-positive solid tumors, and the impact of novel discoveries in molecular tumor profiles on future chemotherapeutic protocols.

An Amphiphilic PEGylated Peptide Dendron-Gemcitabine Prodrug-Based Nanoagent for Cancer Therapy

An amphiphilic peptide dendrimer conjugated with gemcitabine (GEM), PEGylated dendron-Gly-Phe-Leu-Gly-GEM (PEGylated dendron-GFLG-GEM), is developed as a nano-prodrug for breast cancer therapy. The self-assembled behavior is observed under a transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. The negatively charged surface and hydrodynamic size of the amphiphilic nanosized prodrug supported that the prodrug can maintain the stability of GEM during circulation and accumulate in the tumor tissue. Drug release assays are conducted to monitor the release of GEM from this nanodrug delivery system in response to the tumor microenvironment, and these assays confirm that GEM released from the nanocarrier is identical to free GEM. The GEM prodrug can prevent proliferation of tumor cells. The therapeutic effect against breast cancer is systematically investigated using an in vivo animal model. Immunohistochemical results are aligned with the significantly enhanced anticancer efficacy of GEM released from the prodrug. This self-assembled amphiphilic drug delivery nanocarrier may broaden the application for GEM and other anticancer agents for breast cancer chemotherapy.

Hyaluronic acid reduction-sensitive polymeric micelles achieving co-delivery of tumor-targeting paclitaxel/apatinib effectively reverse cancer multidrug resistance

Multidrug resistance (MDR) of cancer cells is a significant challenge in chemotherapy, highlighting the urgent medical need for simple and reproducible strategies to reverse this process. Here, we report the development of an active tumor-targeting and redox-responsive nanoplatform (PA-ss-NP) using hyaluronic acid-g-cystamine dihydrochloride-poly-ε-(benzyloxycarbonyl)-L-lysine (HA-ss-PLLZ) to co-deliver paclitaxel (PTX) and apatinib (APA) for effective reversal of MDR. This smart nanoplatform specifically bound to CD44 receptors, leading to selective accumulation at the tumor site and uptake by MCF-7/ADR cells. Under high concentrations of cellular glutathione (GSH), the nanocarrier was degraded rapidly with complete release of its encapsulated drugs. Released APA effectively inhibited the function of the P-glycoprotein (P-gp) drug pump and improved the sensitivity of MDR cells to chemotherapeutic agents, leading to the recovery of PTX chemosensitivity in MDR cells. As expected, this newly developed intelligent drug delivery system could effectively control MDR, both in vitro and in vivo.

Tumor Microenvironmental Responsive Liposomes Simultaneously Encapsulating Biological and Chemotherapeutic Drugs for Enhancing Antitumor Efficacy of NSCLC

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) is one of the most lethal types of cancer with highly infiltrating. Chemotherapy is far from satisfactory, vasculogenic mimicry (VM) and angiogenesis results in invasion, migration and relapse.

PURPOSE

The objective of this study was to construct a novel CPP (mmp) modified vinorelbine and dioscin liposomes by two new functional materials, DSPE-PEG2000-MAL and CPP-PVGLIG-PEG5000, to destroy VM channels, angiogenesis, EMT and inhibit invasion and migration.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The targeting liposomes could be enriched in tumor sites through passive targeting, and the positively charged CPP was exposed and enhanced active targeting via electrostatic adsorption after being hydrolyzed by MMP2 enzymes overexpressed in the tumor microenvironment. We found that CPP (mmp) modified vinorelbine and dioscin liposomes with the ideal physicochemical properties and exhibited enhanced cellular uptake. In vitro and in vivo results showed that CPP (mmp) modified vinorelbine and dioscin liposomes could inhibit migration and invasion of A549 cells, destroy VM channels formation and angiogenesis, and block the EMT process. Pharmacodynamic studies showed that the targeting liposomes had obvious accumulations in tumor sites and magnificent antitumor efficiency.

CONCLUSION

CPP (mmp) modified vinorelbine plus dioscin liposomes could provide a new strategy for NSCLC.

Preparation, characterization and anti-cancer activity of graphene oxide-‑silver nanocomposite

This work reported the preparation, characterization, cytotoxicity of green synthesized Lespedeza cuneate mediated silver nanoparticles (Lc-AgNPs) and graphene oxide‑silver nanocomposite (GO-AgNComp) using Lc-AgNPs. The UV absorption spectrum at 419 nm indicated the successful formation of GO-AgNComp. The TEM analysis displayed the thin sheet of graphene decorated Lc-AgNPs in GO-AgNComp. Zeta potential was -13.2 mV for Lc-AgNPs and -30.5 mV for GO-AgNComp. The photothermal conversion efficiency was calculated as 31.09% for GO-AgNComp. The negatively charged zeta potential of GO-AgNComp enhanced its cellular penetration through enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. The near-infrared laser (NIR) induced the anticancer activity of Lc-AgNPs and GO-AgNComp in human lung cancer cells (A549) and brain tumour (LN229). The results indicated that about 50% of A549 cells and LN229 cells were ablated by treatment of 24.73 ± 2.98 μg/mL and 27.34 ± 1.62 μg/mL of Lc-AgNPs, as well by 15.46 ± 2.31 μg/mL and 20.95 ± 1.35 μg/mL of GO-AgNComp respectively. Moreover, GO-AgNComp was not cytotoxic to normal mouse fibroblast cells (NIH3T3), but it caused the cancer cell death in A549 and LN229 through ROS generation, nuclear damage, and mitochondrial membrane potential (∆ψm) loss. This work reported the anticancer potential of GO-AgNComp, which deserves further study on the molecular elucidation of GO-AgNComp mediated human lung and tumour therapy.

A Co-Delivery System of Curcumin and p53 for Enhancing the Sensitivity of Drug-Resistant Ovarian Cancer Cells to Cisplatin

In order to enhance the sensitivity of drug-resistant ovarian cancer cells to cisplatin (DDP), a co-delivery system was designed for simultaneous delivery of curcumin (CUR) and p53 DNA. Firstly, the bifunctional peptide K14 composed of tumor targeting peptide (tLyP-1) and nuclear localization signal (NLS) was synthesized. A nonviral carrier (PEI-K14) was synthesized by cross-linking low molecular weight polyethyleneimine (PEI) with K14. Then, CUR was coupled to PEI-K14 by matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9)-cleavable peptide to prepare CUR-PEI-K14. A co-delivery system, named CUR-PEI-K14/p53, was obtained by CUR-PEI-K14 and p53 self-assembly. Furthermore, the physicochemical properties and gene transfection efficiency were evaluated. Finally, ovarian cancer cisplatin-resistant (SKOV3-DDP) cells were selected to evaluate the effect of CUR-PEI-K14/p53 on enhancing the sensitivity of drug-resistant cells to DDP. The CUR-PEI-K14/DNA complexes appeared uniformly dispersed and spherical. The particle size was around 20-150 nm and the zeta potential was around 18-37 mV. It had good stability, high transfection efficiency, and low cytotoxicity. CUR-PEI-K14/p53 could significantly increase the sensitivity of SKOV3-DDP cells to DDP, and this effect was better as combined with DDP. The sensitizing effect might be related to the upregulation of p53 messenger RNA (mRNA), the downregulation of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) mRNA, and the upregulation of BCL2-Associated X (bax) mRNA. CUR-PEI-K14/p53 can be used as an effective strategy to enhance the sensitivity of drug-resistant ovarian cancer cells to DDP.

Melanoma Cancer Immunotherapy Using PD-L1 siRNA and Imatinib Promotes Cancer-Immunity Cycle

PURPOSE

Cancer-Immunity Cycle is a cascade of anticancer immune responses in the body that continues and fights against the cancer expansion. The Cancer-Immunity Cycle is halted by tumor cell immunosuppression of host T cell through programmed cell death receptor 1 (PD-1) and programmed cell death ligand 1 (PD-L1) interactions that induce the functional suppression of tumor-reactive cytotoxic T cells and actively promotes the tumorigenesis via the mTOR signaling pathway.

METHODS

Here, we demonstrated that this Cycle could be enhanced by the synergistic knock down of PD-L1 through co-delivery of siRNA-PD-L1 (siPD-L1) and imatinib (IMT) in a liposomal nanoparticle.

RESULTS

The siPDIN effectively downregulated the protein expressions of PD-L1 and significantly knocked down the expression of p-S6k protein at in vitro and in vivo conditions which inhibited tumorigenic mTOR pathway. The combination-based siPDIN exhibited a significantly higher cytotoxic effect compared to that of individual anticancer agents. B16F10 cells treated with siPDIN exhibited a significantly higher cancer cell apoptosis (~60%) compared to cocktail combination of siRNA+IMT (~35%) analyzed by flow cytometer. Importantly, siPDIN significantly delayed the tumor growth with significantly lower tumor-specific growth rate than the animals treated with individual free IMT or siRNA. siPDIN produced a 3-fold higher IFN-γ compared to control in DLNs and 4-fold higher IFN-γ in spleens.

CONCLUSION

Overall, results revealed that the tumors treated with siPDIN restored the immunity of CTLs by potentially inhibiting the immune checkpoint interactions, suppressed the mTOR signaling pathway and exhibited an enhanced anticancer efficacy in melanoma.

Surface engineering of nanoparticles with ligands for targeted delivery to osteosarcoma

Osteosarcoma is one of the most common malignant bone tumors which affect adolescents. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by operation has become recommended for osteosarcoma treatment. Whereas, the effects of conventional chemotherapy are unsatisfactory because of multidrug resistance, fast clearance rate, nontargeted delivery, side effects and so on. Accordingly, Nanoparticle-mediated targeted drug delivery system (NTDDS) is recommended to be a novel treatment strategy for osteosarcoma. NTDDS can overcome the above obstacles by enhanced permeability and retention effect and active targeting. The active targeting of the delivery system is mainly based on ligands. In this study, we investigate and summarize the most common ligands used in the latest NTDDS for osteosarcoma. It might provide new insights into nanomedicine for osteosarcoma treatment.

Biointerface engineering nanoplatforms for cancer-targeted drug delivery

Over the past decade, nanoparticle-based therapeutic modalities have become promising strategies in cancer therapy. Selective delivery of anticancer drugs to the lesion sites is critical for elimination of the tumor and an improved prognosis. Innovative design and advanced biointerface engineering have promoted the development of various nanocarriers for optimized drug delivery. Keeping in mind the biological framework of the tumor microenvironment, biomembrane-camouflaged nanoplatforms have been a research focus, reflecting their superiority in cancer targeting. In this review, we summarize the development of various biomimetic cell membrane-camouflaged nanoplatforms for cancer-targeted drug delivery, which are classified according to the membranes from different cells. The challenges and opportunities of the advanced biointerface engineering drug delivery nanosystems in cancer therapy are discussed.

Synthesis of novel N-vinylpyrrolidone/acrylic acid nanoparticles as drug delivery carriers of cisplatin to cancer cells

This study aimed to synthesize novel polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) bound with cisplatin for the treatment of oral cancer. The NPs were synthesized from N-vinylpyrrolidone (NVP) and acrylic acid (AA) using 2 different methods based on a surfactant-free emulsion polymerization reaction. An azo initiator (V₅₀) and bisacrylamide crosslinker were used in the reaction to create the NPs. The morphology, physicochemical characteristics, drug loading, and in vitro release were evaluated. Moreover, the cytotoxicity, death induction mechanism, and in vitro intracellular accumulation of cisplatin in HN22 cells were also investigated. Relatively spherical NPs with negative charge were obtained from both synthesis methods with the size in the range of 136-183 nm. The NPs were bound to cisplatin via coordination bond which was confirmed by FT-IR. The optimal NPs to cisplatin ratio was found to be 1:10 with %entrapment efficiency and loading capacity of 12-18% and 4 mmol/g, respectively. Approximately 47-83% of cisplatin was released from the NPs in 7 days in the presence of chloride ions depending on the pH of the release medium. The novel NPs from both methods were nontoxic to gingival fibroblast cells while the IC₅₀ values of cisplatin-loaded NPs on HN22 cells were just above 20 μg/mL. In addition, the cisplatin-loaded NPs demonstrated a higher percentage in the early apoptotic death mechanism. Higher cellular deposition of cisplatin at the earlier period was obtained by the cisplatin-loaded NPs suggesting a slower but safer cancer-killing effect. Therefore, these novel NPs may be promising nanocarriers of cisplatin for oral cancer treatment.

Synergistic combination therapy of lung cancer: Cetuximab functionalized nanostructured lipid carriers for the co-delivery of paclitaxel and 5-Demethylnobiletin

Lung cancer remains the leading cause of cancer associated deaths worldwide. Recent efforts have been focused on combinational and nanoparticulate therapies that can efficiently deliver multiple therapeutics. Herein, we reported cetuximab (CET) functionalized, paclitaxel (PTX) and 5-Demethylnobiletin (DMN) co-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) (CET-PTX/DMN-NLCs). The morphology, particle size, zeta potential, stability and drug release were tested. Cellular uptake, cell viability, synergistic effects and in vivo anti-tumor effects were evaluated on human lung adenocarcinoma cells (A549 cells), human embryonic lung cells (MRC-5 cells) and A549 paclitaxel-resistant cells bearing mice models. NLCs had sizes of around 130 nm and zeta potentials of +20-30 mV. The release of drugs from NLCs was relatively fast at the first 12 h and then became slow until completion of sustained release behavior. Cells uptake of CET-PTX/DMN-NLCs (65.8%) was remarkably higher than that of PTX/DMN-NLCs (35.5%) in A549 cells. The combination treatment with PTX and DMN synergistically decreases the viability of cells than the single PTX-NLCs and DMN-NLCs. CET-PTX/DMN-NLCs exhibited the most remarkable in vivo tumor inhibition efficiency, which suspended the tumor growth from 1010.23 to 211.18 mm³ at the end of the study. The highest tumor accumulation amount and low toxicity made CET-PTX/DMN-NLCs a promising system for the synergistic combination therapy of lung cancer.

Rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG29)-linked microRNA-124-loaded polymeric nanoparticles inhibit neuroinflammation in a Parkinson's disease model

In the present study, we have prepared microRNA(miR)-124-loaded Rabies virus glycoprotein (RVG)29 surface-conjugated polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) to improve neuroinflammation in Parkinson's disease (PD). We hypothesize that an increase in the intracellular concentration of miR-124 will result in a better prognosis for Parkinson's disease. Minimal toxicity for the RVG29 NPs was observed at concentrations <100 µg/mL, while the cell viability of cells treated with blank NPs at concentrations of 200 µg/mL markedly decreased, indicating the safety of the carrier system. Results showed that mRNA levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), and interleukin (IL)-6, significantly increased upon lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration. However, the mRNA levels of these cytokines reflected those of the miR-NPs-treated control group, indicating the influence of miR-124 exposure. After transfection with miR-NPs, levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and neuroprotective molecules were reduced and increased, respectively. Administration of LPS significantly increased the levels of mitogen activated protein kinase kinase kinase (MEKK)3 and P-P65 levels, while transfection with miR-NPs significantly reduced the expression of both MEKK3 and P-P65, reflecting that of the control. This research has revealed that miR-124 could target both the MEKK3 and nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B cell (NF-Kb) pathways, while also reducing inflammatory cytokine levels. In addition, a 3-fold decrease in apoptosis was observed in miR-NP transfected cells. The exogenous delivery of miR-NPs significantly downregulated MEKK3 expression in animal studies, as outlined by immunohistochemical staining (IHC). Overall, miR-NPs have the potential to inhibit pro-inflammatory signaling and enhance neuroprotection in PD.

Mitochondria and Nuclei Dual-Targeted Hollow Carbon Nanospheres for Cancer Chemophotodynamic Synergistic Therapy

Dual-targeted nanoparticles are gaining increasing importance as a more effective anticancer strategy by attacking double key sites of tumor cells, especially in chemophotodynamic therapy. To retain the nuclei inhibition effect and enhance doxorubicin (DOX)-induced apoptosis by mitochondrial pathways simultaneously, we synthesized the novel nanocarrier (HKH) based on hollow carbon nitride nanosphere (HCNS) modified with hyaluronic acid (HA) and the mitochondrial localizing peptide D[KLAKLAK]2 (KLA). DOX-loaded HKH nanoparticles (HKHDs) showed satisfactory drug-loading efficiency, excellent solubility, and very low hemolytic effect. HA/CD44 binding and electrostatic attraction between positively charged KLA and A549 cells facilitated HKHD uptake via the endocytosis mechanism. Acidic microenvironment, hyaluronidase, and KLA targeting together facilitate doxorubicin toward the mitochondria and nuclei, resulting in apoptosis, DNA intercalation, cell-cycle arrest at the S phase, and light-induced reactive oxygen species production. Intravascular HKHD inhibited tumor growth in A549-implanted mice with good safety. The present study, for the first time, systemically reveals biostability, targetability, chemophotodynamics, and safety of the functionalized novel HKHD.

Aerosol technique-based carbon-encapsulated hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles for synergistic chemo-photothermal therapy

Near-infrared (NIR)-responsive drug delivery systems have enhanced tumor ablative efficiency through permeation and retention effects. Graphene oxide (GO) has shown great potential both in photothermal therapy and in drug delivery. Thus, in this study, we designed an ambient spark-generated GO, wrapped on topotecan (TPT)-loaded hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HMSN-NH2-TPT-CGO), to function as an efficient platform for pH-dependent sustained release of TPT. HMSN-NH2-TPT-CGO also exhibited a combined chemo-photothermal effect within a single carrier system. This developed system was stable with a uniform particle size (∼190 nm) and was demonstrated to possess a sufficient heat-absorbing capacity to induce tumor cell ablation. We performed the ablation of tumor cells both in vitro and in vivo in combination with photothermal therapy and chemotherapy using the spark-generated functional GO and HMSN. The prepared nanocarriers demonstrated high cellular uptake, apoptosis, and G0/G1 cell cycle arrest. In vivo study using the MDA-MB-231 xenograft model revealed the ultraefficient tumor ablative performance of HMSN-NH2-TPT-CGO compared with that of free TPT, with no toxic effect on vital organs. Altogether, the optimized nanocarriers presented a significant potential to act as a vehicle for cancer treatment. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first study that uses spark-generated graphene oxide nanoflakes to cover the topotecan (TPT)-loaded hollow mesoporous silica nanoparticles (HMSNs) to treat breast cancer. Dense silica was used as a hard template to prepare the HMSNs attributing to a high drug payload. The concentration of Na₂CO₃ was precisely controlled to minimize the silica etching time within 70 min. The use of the nanographene flakes served a dual purpose, first, by acting as a capping agent to prevent the premature release of drug and, second, by serving as a nano heater that significantly ablates the tumor cells. The prepared nanocarriers (NCs) exhibited effective and enhanced in vitro and in vivo apoptosis, as well as significant tumor growth inhibition even after 15 days of treatment time, with no toxic effect to the vital organs. The NCs enhanced in vitro tumor cell killing effects and served as an effective carrier for in vivo tumor regression, thereby highlighting the enormous potential of this system for breast cancer therapy.

Enhanced antiproliferative effect of resveratrol in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma using GE11 peptide conjugated liposome

The present study describes the preparation of a dodecapeptide YHWYGYTPQNVI (GE11)‑conjugated liposome bound with polyethylene glycol to enhance the therapeutic effect of resveratrol (RSV) in head and neck cancer cells. The results indicated that (RSV)‑loaded GE11‑conjugated liposomes (RSV‑GL) exhibited a high entrapment efficiency of >95%, with an active drug loading level of 19.5% w/w. Release kinetics revealed that RSV was released in a slow and sustained manner from the RSV‑GL and RSV‑loaded liposome (RSV‑L) nanoparticulate systems. The epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR)‑overexpressing squamous cell carcinoma HN cells specifically internalized GE11 surface‑conjugated liposome in a manner that was markedly increased compared with that of the non‑targeted carrier. Consistently, RSV‑GL exhibited a significantly increased cytotoxic effect compared with that of the non‑targeted nanoparticles. Notably, RSV‑GL induced significantly increased proportions of early (~60%) and late (~10%) apoptotic cells in head and neck cancer cell populations. To the best of our knowledge, the application and development of EGFR‑targeted peptide‑conjugated liposome system for RSV delivery has not been studied previously in the treatment of head and neck cancer. In addition, RSV‑GL exhibited the greatest antitumor efficacy compared with any other group. RSV‑GL exhibited a 2‑fold decrease in tumor volume compared with the free RSV and a 3‑fold decrease in volume compared with the control. Overall, the nanomedicine strategy described in the present study may potentially advance the chemotherapy‑based treatment of head and neck cancer, with promising applications in other EGFR‑overexpressing tumors.

Transferrin-Conjugated Polymeric Nanoparticle for Receptor-Mediated Delivery of Doxorubicin in Doxorubicin-Resistant Breast Cancer Cells

In this study, a transferrin (Tf)-conjugated polymeric nanoparticle was developed for the targeted delivery of the chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (Dox) in order to overcome multi-drug resistance in cancer treatment. Our objective was to improve Dox delivery for producing significant antitumor efficacy in Dox-resistant (R) breast cancer cell lines with minimum toxicity to healthy cells. The results of our experiments revealed that Dox was successfully loaded inside a transferrin (Tf)-conjugated polymeric nanoparticle composed of poloxamer 407 (F127) and 123 (P123) (Dox/F127&P123-Tf), which produced nanosized particles (~90 nm) with a low polydispersity index (~0.23). The accelerated and controlled release profiles of Dox from the nanoparticles were characterized in acidic and physiological pH and Dox/F127&P123-Tf enhanced Dox cytotoxicity in OVCAR-3, MDA-MB-231, and MDA-MB-231(R) cell lines through induction of cellular apoptosis. Moreover, Dox/F127&P123-Tf inhibited cell migration and altered the cell cycle patterns of different cancer cells. In vivo study in MDA-MB-231(R) tumor-bearing mice demonstrated enhanced delivery of nanoparticles to the tumor site when coated in a targeting moiety. Therefore, Dox/F127&P123-Tf has been tailored, using the principles of nanotherapeutics, to overcome drug-resistant chemotherapy.

Diosgenin-conjugated PCL–MPEG polymeric nanoparticles for the co-delivery of anticancer drugs: design, optimization, in vitro drug release and evaluation of anticancer activity

In this study, a polymeric nanoparticle-mediated dual anti-cancer drug delivery system was designed and developed.

PG-Priming Enhances Doxorubicin Influx to Trigger Necrotic and Autophagic Cell Death in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Synergistic effects between natural compounds and chemotherapy drugs are believed to have fewer side effects with equivalent efficacy. However, the synergistic potential of prodigiosin (PG) with doxorubicin (Dox) chemotherapy is still unknown. This study explores the synergistic mechanism of PG and Dox against oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) cells. Three OSCC cell lines were treated with different PG/Dox combinatory schemes for cytotoxicity tests and were further investigated for cell death characteristics by cell cycle flow cytometry and autophagy/apoptosis marker labelling. When OSCC cells were pretreated with PG, the cytotoxicity of the subsequent Dox-treatment was 30% higher than Dox alone. The cytotoxic efficacy of PG-pretreated was found better than those of PG plus Dox co-treatment and Dox-pretreatment. Increase of Sub-G1 phase and caspase-3/LC-3 levels without poly (ADP-ribose) polymeras (PARP) elevation indicated both autophagy and necrosis occurred in OSCC cells. Dox flux after PG-priming was further evaluated by rhodamine-123 accumulation and Dox transporters analysis to elucidate the PG-priming effect. PG-priming autophagy enhanced Dox accumulation according to the increase of rhodamine-123 accumulation without the alterations of Dox transporters. Additionally, the cause of PG-triggered autophagy was determined by co-treatment with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress or AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) inhibitor. PG-induced autophagy was not related to nutrient deprivation and ER stress was proved by co-treatment with specific inhibitor. Taken together, PG-priming autophagy could sensitize OSCC cells by promoting Dox influx without regulation of Dox transporter. The PG-priming might be a promising adjuvant approach for the chemotherapy of OSCC.

Hyaluronic acid-capped compact silica-supported mesoporous titania nanoparticles for ligand-directed delivery of doxorubicin

Mesoporous titania nanoparticles (MTN), owing to their high surface area to volume ratio and tunable pore sizes, appear capable of delivering sizable amounts of drug payloads, and hence, show considerable promise as drug delivery candidates in cancer therapy. We designed silica-supported MTN (MTNst) coated with hyaluronic acid (HA) to effectively deliver doxorubicin (DOX) for breast cancer therapy. The HA coating served a dual purpose of stabilizing the payload in the carriers as well as actively targeting the nanodevices to CD44 receptors. The so-formed HA-coated MTNst carrying DOX (HA/DOX-MTNst) had spheroid particles with a considerable drug-loading capacity and showed significantly superior in vitro cytotoxicity against MDA-MB-231 cells as compared to free DOX. HA/DOX-MTNst markedly improved the cellular uptake of DOX in an apparently CD44 receptor-dependent manner, and increased the number of apoptotic cells as compared to free DOX. These nanoplatforms accumulated in large quantities in the tumors of MDA-MB-231 xenograft tumor-bearing mice, where they significantly enhanced the inhibition of tumor growth compared to that observed with free DOX with no signs of acute toxicity. Based on these excellent results, we deduced that HA/DOX-MTNst could be successfully used for targeted breast cancer therapy. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first study to use silica-supported mesoporous titania nanoparticles (MTNst) for doxorubicin (DOX) delivery to treat breast cancer, which exhibited effective and enhanced in vitro and in vivo apoptosis and tumor growth inhibition. Solid silica was used to support the mesoporous TiO₂ resulting in MTNst, which efficiently incorporated a high DOX payload. The hyaluronic acid (HA) coating over the MTNst surface served a dual purpose of first, stabilizing DOX inside the MTNst (capping agent), and second, directing the nanoplatform device to CD44 receptors that are highly expressed in MDA-MB-231 cells (targeting ligand). The NPs exhibited highly efficacious in vitro tumor-cell killing and excellent in vivo tumor regression, highlighting the enormous promise of this system for breast cancer therapy.

Antiproliferative and Apoptosis Triggering Potential of Paclitaxel-Based Targeted-Lipid Nanoparticles with Enhanced Cellular Internalization by Transferrin Receptors-a Study in Leukemia Cells

Leukemia is a typical blood cancer that is characterized by the numerous duplication and proliferation of white blood cells. The main aim of this study was to develop PTX-loaded multifunctional nanoparticles and target to leukemia cells. In this study, transferrin-decorated paclitaxel-loaded lipid nanoparticle (TPLN) was prepared with an aim to increase the chemotherapeutic efficacy in the leukemia cells. Results clearly showed the superior targeting potential of TPLN to the HL-60 cancer cells compared to that of the paclitaxel-loaded nanoparticles (PLN). To be specific, TPLN showed a significantly higher cytotoxic effect in the cancer cells compared to that of the PLN indicating the superior targeting efficiency of the Tf-decorated nanoparticle system. The IC50 value of TPLN was 0.45 μg/ml compared to 2.8 μg/ml for PLN. TPLN induced a most remarkable apoptosis of the cancer cells and much of the cells were distorted with huge presence of the apoptotic body formation. Importantly, TPLN showed a remarkable reduction in the viable cells proportion to ~ 65% with around ~ 30% apoptosis cells (early and late apoptosis). Overall, results clearly showed the targeting potential of ligand-conjugated lipid nanoparticle system to the leukemia cells that might pave the way for the successful cancer treatment.

Polyamino Acid Layer-by-Layer (LbL) Constructed Silica-Supported Mesoporous Titania Nanocarriers for Stimuli-Responsive Delivery of microRNA 708 and Paclitaxel for Combined Chemotherapy

Cellular Fas-associated protein with death domain-like interleukin-1β-converting enzyme-inhibitory protein (c-FLIP), often strongly expressed in numerous cancers, plays a pivotal role in thwarting apoptosis and inducing chemotherapy resistance in cancer. An integrated approach combining chemotherapy with suppression of c-FLIP levels could prove paramount in the treatment of cancers with c-FLIP overexpression. In this study, we utilized a polymeric layer-by-layer (LbL) assembly of silica-supported mesoporous titania nanoparticles (MTNst) to co-deliver paclitaxel (PTX) and microRNA 708 (miR708) for simultaneous chemotherapy and c-FLIP suppression in colorectal carcinoma. The resulting LbL miR708/PTX-MTNst showed dose-dependent cytotoxicity in HCT-116 and DLD-1 colorectal carcinoma cell lines, which was remarkably superior to that of free PTX or LbL PTX-MTNst. LbL miR708/PTX-MTNst strongly inhibited c-FLIP expression and resulted in increased expression of proapoptotic proteins. In DLD-1 xenograft tumor-bearing mice, the nanoparticles accumulated in the tumor, resulting in remarkable tumor regression, with the PTX and miR708-loaded nanoparticles showing significantly greater inhibitory effects than the free PTX or PTX-loaded nanoparticles. Immunohistochemical analyses of the tumors further confirmed the remarkable apoptotic and antiproliferative effects of the nanoparticles, whereas organ histology reinforced the biocompatibility of the system. Therefore, the LbL miR708/PTX-MTNst system, owing to its ability to deliver both chemotherapeutic drug and inhibitory miRNA to the tumor site, shows great potential to treat colorectal carcinoma in clinical settings.

Folate receptor-mediated celastrol and irinotecan combination delivery using liposomes for effective chemotherapy

Drug targeting using functionalized nanoparticles provides a new standard in anticancer therapy. Liposomes, safe and effective drug delivery carriers, can incorporate both hydrophilic and hydrophobic drugs for combination chemotherapy treatment of cancers. The objectives of the current study were to synthesize and test the effectiveness of a nanotechnology-based strategy utilizing folic acid (FA)-conjugated liposomes that incorporate both celastrol (Cs) and irinotecan (Ir) for targeted breast cancer therapy. Our results revealed the successful preparation of Cs and Ir-loaded folate-targeted liposomes (Lipo/Cs/Ir-FA) with a small particle size (∼190 nm) and polydispersity index (∼0.10). The formulation exhibited higher drug release profiles for both Ir and Cs at pH 5.0 compared to those at physiological pH, favoring cancer cell-targeted release. Furthermore, in vitro cell studies showed high uptake and enhanced apoptosis in folate receptor-positive breast cancer cells (MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231), but not in folate receptor-negative lung cancer cells (A549). Moreover, an in vivo study in a mouse tumor model using MDA-MB-231 xenografts supported effective drug delivery behavior of the folate-conjugated liposomes by selective targeting of tumor tissue and minimizing systemic adverse effects. Therefore, our formulation could provide an effective therapy for targeted cancer treatment.

A nanomedicine approach enables co-delivery of cyclosporin A and gefitinib to potentiate the therapeutic efficacy in drug-resistant lung cancer

Drug resistance, accounting for therapeutic failure in the clinic, remains a major challenge to effectively manage cancer. Cyclosporin A (CsA) can reverse multidrug resistance (MDR), especially resistance to epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitors. However, the application of both drugs in cancer therapies is hampered by their poor aqueous solubility and low bioavailability due to oral administration. CsA augments the potency of gefitinib (Gef) in both Gef-sensitive and Gef-resistant cell lines. Here, we show that the simultaneous encapsulation of CsA and Gef within polyethylene glycol-block-poly(_{D, L}-lactic acid) (PEG-PLA) produced a stable and systemically injectable nanomedicine, which exhibited a sub-50-nm diameter and spherical structures. Impressively, the co-delivery of therapeutics via single nanoparticles (NPs) outperformed the oral administration of the free drug combination at suppressing tumor growth. Furthermore, in vivo results indicated that CsA formulated in NPs sensitized Gef-resistant cells and Gef-resistant tumors to Gef treatment by inactivating the STAT3/Bcl-2 signaling pathway. Collectively, our nanomedicine approach not only provides an alternative administration route for the drugs of choice but also effectively reverses MDR, facilitating the development of effective therapeutic modalities for cancer.

Injection of nanoparticles containing the anticancer drug gefitinib and the immunosuppressant cyclosporin A reverses drug-resistant cancer growth in mice. The development of multidrug resistance is the main reason why many forms of chemotherapy fail. Cyclosporin A, a drug used to prevent immune rejection after organ transplantation, has previously been shown to enhance the potency of gefitinib. Hangxiang Wang and colleagues at Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China, have successfully combined cyclosporin A and gefitinib, two poorly water-soluble and slowly absorbed drugs, into stable injectable nanoparticles that delay the growth of gefitinib resistant human lung cancer cells as well as the growth of drug resistant tumors in mice. Importantly, this novel co-formulation was more effective than oral co-administration of the two drugs. Further investigation into this drug delivery route could yield much needed alternative treatments for patients with multidrug-resistant cancers.

Multifunctional Glycoconjugate Assisted Nanocrystalline Drug Delivery for Tumor Targeting and Permeabilization of Lysosomal-Mitochondrial Membrane

Nanotechnology has emerged as the most successful strategy for targeting drug payloads to tumors with the potential to overcome the problems of low concentration at the target site, nonspecific distribution, and untoward toxicities. Here, we synthesized a novel polymeric conjugate comprising chondroitin sulfate A and polyethylene glycol using carbodiimide chemistry. We further employed this glycoconjugate possessing the propensity to provide stability, stealth effects, and tumor targeting via CD44 receptors, all in one, to develop a nanocrystalline system of docetaxel (DTX@CSA-NCs) with size < 200 nm, negative zeta potential, and 98% drug content. Taking advantage of the enhanced permeability and retention effect coupled with receptor mediated endocytosis, the DTX@CSA-NCs cross the peripheral tumor barrier and penetrate deeper into the cells of tumor mass. In MDA-MB-231 cells, this enhanced cellular uptake was observed to exhibit a higher degree of cytotoxicity and arrest in the G2 phase in a time dependent fashion. Acting via a mitochondrial-lysosomotropic pathway, DTX@CSA-NCs disrupted the membrane potential and integrity and outperformed the clinically used formulation. Upon intravenous administration, the DTX@CSA-NCs showed better pharmacokinetic profile and excellent 4T1 induced tumor inhibition with significantly less off target toxicity. Thus, this glycoconjugate stabilized nanocrystalline formulation has the potential to take nano-oncology a step forward.

Regulatory T cell-targeted hybrid nanoparticles combined with immuno-checkpoint blockage for cancer immunotherapy

Immunosuppression in tumor microenvironments induced by regulatory T (Treg) cells is regarded a critical mechanism of tumor immune escape and poses a major impediment to cancer immunotherapy. In this study, we developed tLyp1 peptide-conjugated hybrid nanoparticles for targeting Treg cells in the tumor microenvironment. The tLyp1 peptide-modified hybrid nanoparticles presented good stability and effective targeting to Treg cells, and they enhanced the effect of imatinib in downregulating Treg cell suppression through inhibition of STAT3 and STAT5 phosphorylation. In addition, an in vivo study revealed high tumor accumulation of the hybrid nanoparticle. Specifically, prolonged survival rate, enhanced tumor inhibition, reduced intratumoral Treg cells, and elevated intratumoral CD8⁺ T cells against tumor were observed when combined with checkpoint-blockade by using anti-cytotoxic T-lymphocyte antigen-4 antibody. This study provided groundwork for a repertoire of nanoparticle-based drugs for targeting and modulating Treg cell function in the tumor microenvironment and for improving antitumor immunotherapy.

Notch-1 siRNA and Methotrexate towards a Multifunctional Approach in Rhematoid Arthritis Management: a Nanomedicine Approach

PURPOSE

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory disease and Notch pathway plays a pivotal role in synoviocytes involved in progression of RA.

METHODS

Herein, we have designed a self-assembled polymeric micelles based on polycaprolactone-polyethylene glycol (PCL-PEG) and polyethylenimine-polyethylene glycol (PEI-PEG) was prepared and loaded with methotrexate and Notch-1 siRNA for the effective treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

RESULTS

The MTX/siRNA-loaded polymeric micelles (siM-PM) showed appreciable cellular uptake in Raw264.7 cells which were activated with LPS and did not exhibit any toxicity to Raw264.7 and HUVEC cells. The AUC of siM-PM was 4-fold higher compared to that of free MTX while t1/2 was 6 fold for siM-PM compared to that of free drug indicating the superior pharmacokinetic parameters. Importantly, siM-PM significantly reduced the paw thickness and slowed the disease progression remarkably, indicating that siM-PM is very effective in recovering the edema in arthritic animals. Importantly, 2-fold decrease in arthritic score was observed in siM-PM treated group at the end of day 24. The data clearly reveals anti-inflammatory effect of combinational nanoparticle due to the sequence specific downregulation of Notch-1 expression in the RA clinical models.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, nanomedicine-based delivery of MTX and siRNA could overcome the side effects of small molecules and could improve the therapeutic effect of siRNA in rheumatoid arthritis.

Surfactin-based nanoparticles loaded with doxorubicin to overcome multidrug resistance in cancers

BACKGROUND

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is one of the major obstacles to successful cancer chemotherapy. Developing efficient strategies to reverse MDR remains a major challenge. Surfactin (SUR), a cyclic lipopeptide biosurfactant, has been found to display anticancer activity.

METHODS

In this paper, SUR was assembled by solvent-emulsion method to load the anticancer drug doxorubicin (DOX). The cytotoxicity of DOX-loaded SUR nanoparticles (DOX@SUR) against DOX-resistant human breast cancer MCF-7/ADR is measured by MTT assay. The cellular uptake and intracellular retention of DOX@SUR are determined by flow cytometry. The tumor accumulation and anticancer activity of DOX@SUR are evaluated in MCF-7/ADR-bearing nude mice.

RESULTS

DOX@SUR induce stronger cytotoxicity against DOX-resistant human breast cancer MCF-7/ADR cells compared to free DOX. DOX@SUR nanoparticles exhibit enhanced cellular uptake and decreased cellular efflux, which might be associated with reduced P-glycoprotein expression. After internalization into MCF-7/ADR cells by macropinocytosis- and caveolin-mediated endocytosis, DOX@SUR nanoparticles are colocalized with the lysosomes and translocated to the nucleus to exert cytotoxicity. Furthermore, in vivo animal experiment shows that the DOX@ SUR nanoparticles are accumulated more efficiently in tumors than free DOX. Meanwhile, DOX@SUR nanoparticles display stronger tumor inhibition activity and fewer side effects in MCF-7/ADR-bearing nude mice.

CONCLUSION

This study indicates that SUR-based nanocarrier might present a promising platform to reverse MDR in cancer chemotherapy.

Multifunctional nanoparticles as somatostatin receptor-targeting delivery system of polyaniline and methotrexate for combined chemo-photothermal therapy

Lanreotide (LT), a synthetic analog of somatostatin, has been demonstrated to specifically bind to somatostatin receptors (SSTRs), which are widely overexpressed in several types of cancer cells. In this study, we incorporated a chemotherapeutic agent, methotrexate (MTX), and a photosensitizer material, polyaniline (PANI), into hybrid polymer nanoparticles (NPs), which could target cancer cells after conjugation with LT (LT-MTX/PANI NPs). The successful preparation of LT-MTX/PANI NPs was confirmed by a small particle size (187.9 ± 3.2 nm), a polydispersity index of 0.232 ± 0.011, and a negative ζ potential of -14.6 ± 1.0 mV. Notably, LT-MTX/PANI NPs showed a greater uptake into SSTR-positive cancer cells and thereby better inhibited cell viability and induced higher levels of apoptosis than MTX, PANI NP, and MTX/PANI NP treatments did. In addition, the heat associated with the burst drug release induced by near-infrared (NIR) irradiation resulted in remarkably enhanced cell apoptosis, which was confirmed by an increase in the expression levels of apoptotic marker proteins. In agreement with the in vitro results, the administration of the SSTR-targeting NPs, followed by NIR exposure, to xenograft tumor-bearing mice resulted in an improved suppression of tumor development compared to that shown by MTX, PANI NPs, and MTX/PANI NPs, as well as by LT-MTX/PANI NPs without photothermal therapy. Thus, the SSTR-targeting NPs could be a promising delivery system for the effective treatment of SSTR-positive cancers.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

Somatostatin receptors are widely overexpressed in several types of cancer cells. In this study, we designed nanoparticles for targeted delivery of chemotherapeutic agents to tumor sites by conjugating hybrid polymers with a synthetic analog of somatostatin, specifically binding to somatostatin receptors. In addition, a photosensitizer material, polyaniline, was incorporated into the nanoparticles for combined chemo-photothermal therapy. The results demonstrated clear advantages of the newly designed targeted nanoparticles over their non-targeted counterparts or a free chemotherapeutic drug in inhibiting the viability of cancer cells in vitro and targeting/suppressing the tumor growth in an animal xenograft model. The study suggests that the designed nanoparticles are a promising delivery system for the effective treatment of somatostatin receptor-positive cancers.

pH-triggered surface charge-switchable polymer micelles for the co-delivery of paclitaxel/disulfiram and overcoming multidrug resistance in cancer

Multidrug resistance (MDR) remains a major challenge for providing effective chemotherapy for many cancer patients. To address this issue, we report an intelligent polymer-based drug co-delivery system which could enhance and accelerate cellular uptake and reverse MDR. The nanodrug delivery systems were constructed by encapsulating disulfiram (DSF), a P-glyco-protein (P-gp) inhibitor, into the hydrophobic core of poly(ethylene glycol)-block-poly(l-lysine) (PEG-b-PLL) block copolymer micelles, as well as 2,3-dimethylmaleic anhydride (DMA) and paclitaxel (PTX) were grafted on the side chain of l-lysine simultaneously. The surface charge of the drug-loaded micelles represents as negative in plasma (pH 7.4), which is helpful to prolong the circulation time, and in a weak acid environment of tumor tissue (pH 6.5-6.8) it can be reversed to positive, which is in favor of their entering into the cancer cells. In addition, the carrier could release DSF and PTX successively inside cells. The results of in vitro studies show that, compared to the control group, the DSF and PTX co-loaded micelles with charge reversal exhibits more effective cellular uptake and significantly increased cytotoxicity of PTX to MCF-7/ADR cells which may be due to the inhibitory effect of DSF on the efflux function of P-gp. Accordingly, such a smart pH-sensitive nanosystem, in our opinion, possesses significant potential to achieve combinational drug delivery and overcome drug resistance in cancer therapy.

miR-542-3p Appended Sorafenib/All-trans Retinoic Acid (ATRA)-Loaded Lipid Nanoparticles to Enhance the Anticancer Efficacy in Gastric Cancers

PURPOSE

In this study, miR-542-3p appended SRF/ATRA-loaded solid lipid nanoparticle was successfully prepared and demonstrated for its therapeutic efficacy against gastric cancers.

METHODS

The particles were nanosized and typically spherical in shape. In vitro release study showed that release of ATRA was significantly slower compared to that of SRF from the NPs.

RESULTS

MTT assay showed that miR-542-3p have a strong inhibitory effect on the proliferation of MGC-803 cancer cells in a typical dose dependent manner. Nanocarrier encapsulation of SRF + ATRA induced a significantly higher cytotoxic effect compared to either individual drug or cocktail combinations indicating that the cellular uptake of different formulations was rate limiting factor in the therapeutic efficacy. Importantly, miR-542-3p-based miSRNP exhibited an extremely significant toxic effect compared to any other treated group. Importantly, miSRNP induced a significantly higher early (~55%) and late (~15%) apoptotic effect in gastric cancer cells. In vivo anticancer analysis results clearly suggest that nanoparticle encapsulation of combination of SRF and miRNA (with miRNA) will have greater antitumor efficacy in tumor mice.

CONCLUSION

Overall, unique combination of miRNA coupled with SRF + ATRA in a lipid nanocarrier could be a promising therapeutic approach in gastric cancer treatment.

Facile construction of bioreducible crosslinked polypeptide micelles for enhanced cancer combination therapy

In this study, we developed pH and redox-responsive crosslinked polypeptide-based combination micelles for enhanced chemotherapeutic efficacy and minimized side effects. The stability and drug release properties of the polypeptide micelles were efficiency balanced by the corona-crosslinking of the triblock copolymer, poly(ethylene glycol)-b-poly(aspartic acid)-b-poly(tyrosine) (PEG-b-pAsp-b-pTyr) with coordinated redox and pH dual-sensitivity by introducing disulfide crosslinkages. Because of the crosslinking of the middle shell of the triblock polypeptide micelles, their robust structure was maintained in strong destabilization conditions and exhibited excellent stability. GSH concentrations were significantly higher in tumor tissue than in normal tissue, which formed the basis for our design. Drug release was elevated under redox and low acidic conditions. Furthermore, crosslinked micelles showed a superior anticancer effect compared to that of non-crosslinked micelles. Incorporation of docetaxel (DTX) and lonidamine (LND) in crosslinked polypeptide micelles increased the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) level and oxidative stress and caused damage to intracellular components that resulted in greater apoptosis of cancer cells than when DTX or LND was used alone. The combination of DTX and LND in crosslinked micelles exhibited efficacious inhibition of tumor growth with an excellent safety profile compared to that reported for drug cocktail combinations and non-crosslinked micelles. Overall, redox/pH-responsive polypeptide micelles could be an interesting platform for efficient chemotherapy.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

We have synthesized a biodegradable polypeptide block copolymer to construct a facile pH and redox-responsive polymeric micelle asan advanced therapeutic system for cancer therapy. We have designed a corona-crosslinked triblock copolymer (poly (ethylene glycol)-b-poly(aspartic acid)-b-poly(tyrosine) (PEG-b-pAsp-b-pTyr)) micelles co-loaded with docetaxel and lonidamine (cl-M/DL). The corona of triblock polymer was crosslinked to maintain its structural integrity in the physiological environment. The mitochondrial targeting LND is expected to generate ROS, oxidative stress and thereby synergize the chemotherapeutic efficacy of DTX in killing cancer cells. Consistently, cl-M/DL exhibited excellent antitumor efficacy in xenograft tumor model with remarkable tumor regression. Overall, we demonstrated the construction of bioreducible nanosystem for the effective synergistic delivery of DTX/LND in tumor tissues towards cancer treatment.

A simple reduction-sensitive micelles co-delivery of paclitaxel and dasatinib to overcome tumor multidrug resistance

Multidrug resistance (MDR) is one of the major obstacles in successful chemotherapy. The combination of chemotherapy drugs and multidrug-resistant reversing agents for treating MDR tumor is a good strategy to overcome MDR. In this work, we prepared the simple redox-responsive micelles based on mPEG-SS-C18 as a co-delivery system to load the paclitaxel (PTX) and dasatinib (DAS) for treatment of MCF-7/ADR cells. The co-loaded micelles had a good dispersity and a spherical shape with a uniform size distribution, and they could quickly disassemble and rapidly release drugs under the reduction environment. Compared with MCF-7 cells, the DAS and PTX co-loaded redox-sensitive micelle (SS-PDNPs) showed stronger cytotoxicity and a more improving intracellular drug concentration than other drug formulations in MCF-7/ADR cells. In summary, the results suggested that the simple co-delivery micelles of PTX and DAS possessed significant potential to overcome drug resistance in cancer therapy.

Erythrocyte Membrane-Wrapped pH Sensitive Polymeric Nanoparticles for Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Therapy

The application of nano drug delivery systems (NDDSs) may enhance the effectiveness of chemotherapeutic drugs in vivo. However, the short blood circulation time and poor drug release profile in vivo are still two problems with them. Herein, by using red blood cell membrane (RBCm) wrapping and pH sensitive technology, we prepared RBCm wrapped pH sensitive poly(l-γ-glutamylcarbocistein)-paclitaxel (PGSC-PTX) nanoparticles (PGSC-PTX@RBCm NPs), to prolong the circulation time in blood and release PTX timely and adequately in acidic tumor environment. The PGSC-PTX NPs and PGSC-PTX@RBCm NPs showed spherical morphology with average sizes about 50 and 100 nm, respectively. The cytotoxicity of PGSC-PTX@RBCm NPs was considerably decreased compared with that of PGSC-PTX NPs. PTX release from PGSC-PTX and PGSC-PTX@RBCm NPs at pH 6.5 was remarkably higher than those at pH 7.4, respectively. The PGSC-PTX@RBCm NPs exhibited remarkably decreased uptake by macrophages than PGSC-PTX NPs. The area under the curve within 72 h (AUC_0-72h) for is significantly higher than PGSC-PTX NPs. The PGSC-PTX@RBCm NPs also showed significantly stronger growth-inhibiting effect on tumor than PGSC-PTX NPs. These results indicated that PGSC-PTX@RBCm NPs have acidic drug release sensitivity, the characteristics of long circulation, and remarkable tumor growth inhibiting effect. This study may provide an effective strategy for improving the antitumor effect of NDDS.