DNA-Based Nanomedicine with Targeting and Enhancement of Therapeutic Efficacy of Breast Cancer Cells

Aptamer-Drug conjugates for a targeted and synergistic anticancer Response: Exploiting T30923-5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine (INT-FdU) derivatives

One of the most appealing approaches for cancer treatment is targeted therapy, which is based on the use of drugs able to target cancer cells without affecting normal ones. This strategy lets to overcome the major limitation of conventional chemotherapy, namely the lack of specificity of anticancer drugs, which often leads to severe side effects, decreasing the therapy effectiveness. Delivery of cell-killing substances to tumor cells is one-way targeted drug therapy can work. Generally, monoclonal antibodies are combined with chemotherapeutic drugs, allowing cellular uptake through the binding to their targets on the surface of cancer cells. Aptamer-drug conjugates represent a promising alternative solution to antibodies to minimize off-target effects, considering the remarkable selective binding capabilities of aptamers. In this study, to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of the antineoplastic agent 5-fluoro-2'-deoxyuridine (FdU) in various cancer cells, we focused on the development of a novel conjugate using the antiproliferative aptamer T30923 (INT) as a drug vehicle. Three derivatives composed of T30923 conjugated with a different number of FdU units were synthesized, and their structural and biological properties were thoroughly characterized, highlighting their potential for targeted and synergistic anticancer responses.

Strategies for Improved pDNA Loading and Protection Using Cationic and Neutral LNPs with Industrial Scalability Potential Using Microfluidic Technology

Purpose

In recent years, microfluidic technologies have become mainstream in producing gene therapy nanomedicines (NMeds) following the Covid-19 vaccine; however, extensive optimizations are needed for each NMed type and genetic material. This article strives to improve LNPs for pDNA loading, protection, and delivery, while minimizing toxicity.

Methods

The microfluidic technique was optimized to form cationic or neutral LNPs to load pDNA. Classical "post-formulation" DNA addition vs "pre" addition in the aqueous phase were compared. All formulations were characterized (size, homogeneity, zeta potential, morphology, weight yield, and stability), then tested for loading efficiency, nuclease protection, toxicity, and cell uptake.

Results

Optimized LNPs formulated with DPPC: Chol:DOTAP 1:1:0.1 molar ratio and 10 µg of DOPE-Rhod, had a size of 160 nm and good homogeneity. The chemico-physical characteristics of cationic LNPs worsened when adding 15 µg/mL of pDNA with the "post" method, while maintaining their characteristics up to 100 µg/mL of pDNA with the "pre" addition remaining stable for 30 days. Interestingly, neutral LNPs formulated with the same method loaded up to 50% of the DNA. Both particles could protect the DNA from nucleases even after one month of storage, and low cell toxicity was found up to 40 µg/mL LNPs. Cell uptake occurred within 2 hours for both formulations with the DNA intact in the cytoplasm, outside of the lysosomes.

Conclusion

In this study, the upcoming microfluidic technique was applied to two strategies to generate pDNA-LNPs. Cationic LNPs could load 10x the amount of DNA as the classical approach, while neutral LNPs, which also loaded and protected DNA, showed lower toxicity and good DNA protection. This is a big step forward at minimizing doses and toxicity of LNP-based gene therapy.

Advancements in Aptamer-Driven DNA Nanostructures for Precision Drug Delivery

DNA nanostructures exhibit versatile geometries and possess sophisticated capabilities not found in other nanomaterials. They serve as customizable nanoplatforms for orchestrating the spatial arrangement of molecular components, such as biomolecules, antibodies, or synthetic nanomaterials. This is achieved by incorporating oligonucleotides into the design of the nanostructure. In the realm of drug delivery to cancer cells, there is a growing interest in active targeting assays to enhance efficacy and selectivity. The active targeting approach involves a "key-lock" mechanism where the carrier, through its ligand, recognizes specific receptors on tumor cells, facilitating the release of drugs. Various DNA nanostructures, including DNA origami, Tetrahedral, nanoflower, cruciform, nanostar, nanocentipede, and nanococklebur, can traverse the lipid layer of the cell membrane, allowing cargo delivery to the nucleus. Aptamers, easily formed in vitro, are recognized for their targeted delivery capabilities due to their high selectivity for specific targets and low immunogenicity. This review provides a comprehensive overview of recent advancements in the formation and modification of aptamer-modified DNA nanostructures within drug delivery systems.

A review of DNA nanoparticles-encapsulated drug/gene/protein for advanced controlled drug release: Current status and future perspective over emerging therapy approaches

In the last ten years, the field of nanomedicine has experienced significant progress in creating novel drug delivery systems (DDSs). An effective strategy involves employing DNA nanoparticles (NPs) as carriers to encapsulate drugs, genes, or proteins, facilitating regulated drug release. This abstract examines the utilization of DNA NPs and their potential applications in strategies for controlled drug release. Researchers have utilized the distinctive characteristics of DNA molecules, including their ability to self-assemble and their compatibility with living organisms, to create NPs specifically for the purpose of delivering drugs. The DNA NPs possess numerous benefits compared to conventional drug carriers, such as exceptional stability, adjustable dimensions and structure, and convenient customization. Researchers have successfully achieved a highly efficient encapsulation of different therapeutic agents by carefully designing their structure and composition. This advancement enables precise and targeted delivery of drugs. The incorporation of drugs, genes, or proteins into DNA NPs provides notable advantages in terms of augmenting therapeutic effectiveness while reducing adverse effects. DNA NPs serve as a protective barrier for the enclosed payloads, preventing their degradation and extending their duration in the body. The protective effect is especially vital for delicate biologics, such as proteins or gene-based therapies that could otherwise be vulnerable to enzymatic degradation or quick elimination. Moreover, the surface of DNA NPs can be altered to facilitate specific targeting towards particular tissues or cells, thereby augmenting the accuracy of delivery. A significant benefit of DNA NPs is their capacity to regulate the kinetics of drug release. Through the manipulation of the DNA NPs structure, scientists can regulate the rate at which the enclosed cargo is released, enabling a prolonged and regulated dispensation of medication. This control is crucial for medications with limited therapeutic ranges or those necessitating uninterrupted administration to attain optimal therapeutic results. In addition, DNA NPs have the ability to react to external factors, including alterations in temperature, pH, or light, which can initiate the release of the payload at precise locations or moments. This feature enhances the precision of drug release control. The potential uses of DNA NPs in the controlled release of medicines are extensive. The NPs have the ability to transport various therapeutic substances, for example, drugs, peptides, NAs (NAs), and proteins. They exhibit potential for the therapeutic management of diverse ailments, including cancer, genetic disorders, and infectious diseases. In addition, DNA NPs can be employed for targeted drug delivery, traversing biological barriers, and surpassing the constraints of conventional drug administration methods.

Structural DNA nanotechnology at the nexus of next-generation bio-applications: challenges and perspectives

DNA nanotechnology has significantly progressed in the last four decades, creating nucleic acid structures widely used in various biological applications. The structural flexibility, programmability, and multiform customization of DNA-based nanostructures make them ideal for creating structures of all sizes and shapes and multivalent drug delivery systems. Since then, DNA nanotechnology has advanced significantly, and numerous DNA nanostructures have been used in biology and other scientific disciplines. Despite the progress made in DNA nanotechnology, challenges still need to be addressed before DNA nanostructures can be widely used in biological interfaces. We can open the door for upcoming uses of DNA nanoparticles by tackling these issues and looking into new avenues. The historical development of various DNA nanomaterials has been thoroughly examined in this review, along with the underlying theoretical underpinnings, a summary of their applications in various fields, and an examination of the current roadblocks and potential future directions.

Novel Strategies Using Sagacious Targeting for Site-Specific Drug Delivery in Breast Cancer Treatment: Clinical Potential and Applications

For more than a decade, researchers have been working to achieve new strategies and smart targeting drug delivery techniques and technologies to treat breast cancer (BC). Nanotechnology presents a hopeful strategy for targeted drug delivery into the building of new therapeutics using the properties of nanomaterials. Nanoparticles are of high regard in the field of diagnosis and the treatment of cancer. The use of these nanoparticles as an encouraging approach in the treatment of various cancers has drawn the interest of researchers in recent years. In order to achieve the maximum therapeutic effectiveness in the treatment of BC, combination therapy has also been adopted, leading to minimal side effects and thus an enhancement in the quality of life for patients. This review article compares, discusses and criticizes the approaches to treat BC using novel design strategies and smart targeting of site-specific drug delivery systems.

Aptamer-based targeted delivery systems for cancer treatment using DNA origami and DNA nanostructures

Due to the limitations of conventional cancer treatment methods, nanomedicine has appeared as a promising alternative, allowing improved drug targeting and decreased drug toxicity. In the development of cancer nanomedicines, among various nanoparticles (NPs), DNA nanostructures are more attractive because of their precisely controllable size, shape, excellent biocompatibility, programmability, biodegradability, and facile functionalization. Aptamers are introduced as single-stranded RNA or DNA molecules with recognize their corresponding targets. So, incorporating aptamers into DNA nanostructures led to influential vehicles for bioimaging and biosensing as well as targeted cancer therapy. In this review, the recent developments in the application of aptamer-based DNA origami and DNA nanostructures in advanced cancer treatment have been highlighted. Some of the main methods of cancer treatment are classified as chemo-, gene-, photodynamic- and combined therapy. Finally, the opportunities and problems for targeted DNA aptamer-based nanocarriers for medicinal applications have also been discussed.

Aptamers: Features, Synthesis and Applications

Aptamers have become a topic of interest among the researchers and scientists since they not only possess all of the benefits of antibodies but also possess special qualities including heat stability, low cost, and limitless uses⋅ Here we give a review about the features, applications, and challenges of aptamers and also how they are beneficial over the antibodies for biomedical applications. Their unique features make aptamers a prominent tool in therapeutics, diagnostics, biosensors and targeted drug delivery. In conclusion, aptamers represent exciting materials for a variety of applications and can be modified to improve their properties and to extend their applications in biomedical field.

Dual-targeted delivery of paclitaxel and indocyanine green with aptamer-modified ferritin for synergetic chemo-phototherapy

The combination of phototherapy and chemotherapy has become attractive and effective cancer treatment. However, the accurate delivery of both chemo-phototherapy drugs to the target site as well as the development of high-efficient phototherapy and chemotherapy drugs remain major challenges. In this study, indocyanine green (ICG) and paclitaxel (PTX)-loaded aptamer ferritin (HAS1411-PTX-ICG) was developed as a biocompatible nanoplatform for combined chemo/photothermal/photodynamic (PTT/PDT) therapy that was safe and highly effective against tumors. HAS1411 was prepared by coupling aptamer AS1411 to the surface of human H chain ferritin (HFtn) by the carbon diimide method to further enhance the targeting of HFtn. Both ICG and PTX were effectively encapsulated in the HAS1411 by incubation at 60 ℃. Moreover, under near-infrared (NIR) light irradiation, HAS1411 enhanced the photothermal effect and cell internalization of ICG, as well as the production of reactive oxygen species in cancer cells. HAS1411-PTX-ICG displayed effective cytotoxicity and a significant tumor spheroids inhibitory effect owning to the improved internalization of PTX and ICG mediated by TfR1 and nucleolin dual receptors. Co-loaded PTX combined with ICG can produce chemo/PTT/PDT under near-infrared (NIR) light irradiation, enhancing the anti-tumor effect. The dual-targeting HAS1411 nanocarrier developed in this study can be a promising delivery system for cancer therapy and the fabricated HAS1411-PTX-ICG possesses potential application in chemo-phototherapy.

Application and prospects of nucleic acid nanomaterials in tumor therapy

Cancer poses a great threat to human life, and current cancer treatments, such as radiotherapy, chemotherapy, and surgery, have significant side effects and limitations that hinder their application. Nucleic acid nanomaterials have specific spatial configurations and can be used as nanocarriers to deliver different therapeutic drugs, thereby enabling various biomedical applications, such as biosensors and cancer therapy. In recent decades, a variety of DNA nanostructures have been synthesized, and they have demonstrated remarkable potential in cancer therapy related applications, such as DNA origami structures, tetrahedral framework nucleic acids, and dynamic DNA nanostructures. Importantly, more attention is also being paid to RNA nanostructures, which play an important role in gene therapy. Therefore, this review introduces the developmental history of nucleic acid nanotechnology, summarizes the applications of DNA and RNA nanostructures for tumor treatment, and discusses the development opportunities for nucleic acid nanomaterials in the future.

The application of nanomedicine in clinical settings

As nanotechnology develops in the fields of mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, information and communication, and medical care, it has shown great promises. In recent years, medical nanorobots have made significant progress in terms of the selection of materials, fabrication methods, driving force sources, and clinical applications, such as nanomedicine. It involves bypassing biological tissues and delivering drugs directly to lesions and target cells using nanorobots, thus increasing concentration. It has also proved useful for monitoring disease progression, complementary diagnosis, and minimally invasive surgery. Also, we examine the development of nanomedicine and its applications in medicine, focusing on the use of nanomedicine in the treatment of various major diseases, including how they are generalized and how they are modified. The purpose of this review is to provide a summary and discussion of current research for the future development in nanomedicine.

Application of aptamer-drug delivery system in the therapy of breast cancer

Despite significant treatment advances, breast cancer remains the leading cause of cancer death in women. From the current treatment situation, in addition to developing chemoresistant tumours, distant organ metastasis, and recurrences, patients with breast cancer often have a poor prognosis. Aptamers as "chemical antibodies" may be a way to resolve this dilemma. Aptamers are single-stranded, non-coding oligonucleotides (DNA or RNA), resulting their many advantages, including stability for long-term storage, simplicity of synthesis and function, and low immunogenicity, a high degree of specificity and antidote. Aptamers have gained popularity as a method for diagnosing and treating specific tumors in recent years. This article introduces the application of ten different aptamer delivery systems in the treatment and diagnosis of breast cancer, and systematically reviews their latest research progress in breast cancer treatment and diagnosis. It provides a new direction for the clinical treatment of breast cancer.

Improved Tumor Infiltration and Immunomodulation for Tumor Therapy: A Pathway Based on Tetrahedral Framework Nucleic Acids Coupled Bacterial Nanocells

Growing evidence indicates that the tumor microenvironment (TME) can be combined with other therapeutic modalities, including cytotoxic chemotherapy and targeted therapies, to produce unanticipated results in oncology treatment. Here, we proposed a novel bacterial nanomaterial capable of targeting peritumoral biofilm and modulating TME. It was based on tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (T) that were chemically attached to aptamer AS1411 and 5-fluorouracil (AT5). Additionally, the oral pathogenic bacterium Streptococcus mutans (S.m) was employed as a biocarrier for synergetic biofilm targeting and immunomodulation. In this article, the effect of AT5-coupled S.m-derived nanocells (S.m-AT5) was investigated in vitro and in vivo. Due to bacteria aggregation in the tumor-specific biofilm, these nanocells released greater medication concentrations. Furthermore, they exerted an immunomodulatory effect by stimulating the maturation of dendritic cells (DCs) and regulation of T cells. This chemo-immunostimulation combination has a powerful antitumor impact. It may also be an advanced approach for boosting the survival rate of cancer patients.

Aptamer nucleotide analog drug conjugates in the targeting therapy of cancers

Aptamers are short single-strand oligonucleotides that can form secondary and tertiary structures, fitting targets with high affinity and specificity. They are so-called "chemical antibodies" and can target specific biomarkers in both diagnostic and therapeutic applications. Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) is usually used for the enrichment and selection of aptamers, and the targets could be metal ions, small molecules, nucleotides, proteins, cells, or even tissues or organs. Due to the high specificity and distinctive binding affinity of aptamers, aptamer-drug conjugates (ApDCs) have demonstrated their potential role in drug delivery for cancer-targeting therapies. Compared with antibodies which are produced by a cell-based bioreactor, aptamers are chemically synthesized molecules that can be easily conjugated to drugs and modified; however, the conventional ApDCs conjugate the aptamer with an active drug using a linker which may add more concerns to the stability of the ApDC, the drug-releasing efficiency, and the drug-loading capacity. The function of aptamer in conventional ApDC is just as a targeting moiety which could not fully perform the advantages of aptamers. To address these drawbacks, scientists have started using active nucleotide analogs as the cargoes of ApDCs, such as clofarabine, ara-guanosine, gemcitabine, and floxuridine, to replace all or part of the natural nucleotides in aptamer sequences. In turn, these new types of ApDCs, aptamer nucleotide analog drug conjugates, show the strength for targeting efficacy but avoid the complex drug linker designation and improve the synthetic efficiency. More importantly, these classic nucleotide analog drugs have been used for many years, and aptamer nucleotide analog drug conjugates would not increase any unknown druggability risk but improve the target tumor accumulation. In this review, we mainly summarized aptamer-conjugated nucleotide analog drugs in cancer-targeting therapies.

Aptamers as Smart Ligands for Targeted Drug Delivery in Cancer Therapy

Undesirable side effects and multidrug tolerance are the main holdbacks to the treatment of cancer in conventional chemotherapy. Fortunately, targeted drug delivery can improve the enrichment of drugs at the target site and reduce toxicity to normal tissues and cells. A targeted drug delivery system is usually composed of a nanocarrier and a targeting component. The targeting component is called a "ligand". Aptamers have high target affinity and specificity, which are identified as attractive and promising ligands. Therefore, aptamers have potential application in the development of smart targeting systems. For instance, aptamers are able to efficiently recognize tumor markers such as nucleolin, mucin, and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Besides, aptamers can also identify glycoproteins on the surface of tumor cells. Thus, the aptamer-mediated targeted drug delivery system has received extensive attention in the application of cancer therapy. This article reviews the application of aptamers as smart ligands for targeted drug delivery in cancer therapy. Special interest is focused on aptamers as smart ligands, aptamer-conjugated nanocarriers, aptamer targeting strategy for tumor microenvironment (TME), and aptamers that are specified to crucial cancer biomarkers for targeted drug delivery.

Self-assembly of DNA nanostructure containing cell-specific aptamer as a precise drug delivery system for cancer therapy in non-small cell lung cancer

Background

As the most common subtype in lung cancer, the precise and efficient treatment for non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) remains an outstanding challenge owing to early metastasis and poor prognosis. Chemotherapy, the most commonly used treatment modality, is a difficult choice for many cancer patients due to insufficient drug accumulation in tumor sites and severe systemic side-effects. In this study, we constructed a cell-specific aptamer-modified DNA nanostructure (Apt-NS) as a targeting drug delivery system achieving the precision therapy for lung cancer.

Methods

The synthesis of DNA nanostructure and its stability were evaluated using gel electrophoresis. The targeting properties and internalization mechanism were investigated via flow cytometry and confocal analyses. Drug loading, release, and targeted drug delivery were determined by fluorescence detection, Zeta potentials assay, and confocal imaging. CCK8 assays, colony formation, cell apoptosis, metastasis analyses and in vivo experiments were conducted to assess the biological functions of DNA nanostructure.

Results

Self-assembled DNA nanoparticles (Apt-NS) had excellent stability to serum and DNase I and the ability to specifically recognize A549 cells. Upon specific binding, the drug-loaded nanoparticles (Apt-NS-DOX) were internalized into target cells by clathrin-mediated endocytosis. Subsequently, DOX could be released from Apt-NS-DOX based on the degradation of the lysosome. Apt-NS-DOX exerted significant suppression of cell proliferation, invasion and migration, and also enhanced cell apoptosis due to the excellent performance of drug delivery and intracellular release, while maintaining a superior biosafety. In addition, the antitumor effects of Apt-NS-DOX were further confirmed using in vivo models.

Conclusions

Our study provided cell-specific aptamer-modified DNA nanostructures as a drug-delivery system targeting A549 cells, which could precisely and efficiently transport chemotherapeutic drug into tumor cells, exerting enhanced antineoplastic efficacy. These findings highlight that DNA nanostructure serving as an ideal drug delivery system in cancer treatment appears great promise in biomedical applications.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12951-022-01701-5.

Advances in regenerative medicine applications of tetrahedral framework nucleic acid-based nanomaterials: an expert consensus recommendation

With the emergence of DNA nanotechnology in the 1980s, self-assembled DNA nanostructures have attracted considerable attention worldwide due to their inherent biocompatibility, unsurpassed programmability, and versatile functions. Especially promising nanostructures are tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (tFNAs), first proposed by Turberfield with the use of a one-step annealing approach. Benefiting from their various merits, such as simple synthesis, high reproducibility, structural stability, cellular internalization, tissue permeability, and editable functionality, tFNAs have been widely applied in the biomedical field as three-dimensional DNA nanomaterials. Surprisingly, tFNAs exhibit positive effects on cellular biological behaviors and tissue regeneration, which may be used to treat inflammatory and degenerative diseases. According to their intended application and carrying capacity, tFNAs could carry functional nucleic acids or therapeutic molecules through extended sequences, sticky-end hybridization, intercalation, and encapsulation based on the Watson and Crick principle. Additionally, dynamic tFNAs also have potential applications in controlled and targeted therapies. This review summarized the latest progress in pure/modified/dynamic tFNAs and demonstrated their regenerative medicine applications. These applications include promoting the regeneration of the bone, cartilage, nerve, skin, vasculature, or muscle and treating diseases such as bone defects, neurological disorders, joint-related inflammatory diseases, periodontitis, and immune diseases.

Functionalized-DNA nanostructures as potential targeted drug delivery systems for cancer therapy

Seeman's pioneer idea has led to the foundation of DNA nanostructures, resulting in a remarkable advancement in DNA nanotechnology. Over the last few decades, remarkable advances in drug delivery techniques have resulted in the self-assembly of DNA for encapsulating candidate drug molecules. The nuclear targeting capability of DNA nanostructures is lies within their high spatial addressability and tremendous potential for active targeting. However, effective programming and assembling those DNA molecules remains a challenge, making the path to DNA nanostructures for real-world applications difficult. Because of their small size, most nanostructures are self-capable of infiltrating into the tumor cellular environment. Furthermore, to enable controlled and site-specific delivery of encapsulated drug molecules, DNA nanostructures are functionalized with special moieties that allow them to bind specific targets and release cargo only at targeted sites rather than non-specific sites, resulting in the prevention/limitation of cellular toxicity. In light of this, the current review seeks to shed light on the versatility of the DNA molecule as a targeting and encapsulating moiety for active drugs in order to achieve controlled and specific drug release with spatial and temporal precision. Furthermore, this review focused on the challenges associated with the construction of DNA nanostructures as well as the most recent advances in the functionalization of DNA nanostructures using various materials for controlled and targeted delivery of medications for cancer therapy.

Integrated DNA triangular prism nanomachines for two-stage dynamic recognizing and bio-imaging from surface to the inside of living cells

The identification and detection of biomarkers in cancer cells play an essential role in the early detection of diseases, especially the detection of dual-biomarker. However, one of the most important limiting factors is how to realize the identification and labeling of biomarkers dynamically from the plasma membrane to the cytoplasm in living cells. In this study, integrated DNA triangular prism nanomachines (IDTPNs), a two-stage identification and dynamic bio-imaging strategy, recognize biomarkers from the plasma membrane to the cytoplasm have been designed. DNA triangular prism (DTP) was selected to act as a delivery platform with the aptamer Sgc8c and P53 modified on the side as the recognition molecules. Through the specific recognition of aptamers and the superior internalization of DTP, the IDTPNs realize the dynamic responses to PTK7 and p53 from the membrane to the cytoplasm in living cells. It is proved that the IDTPNs can be used for dynamic dual-biomarker recognition and bio-image from the surface to the inside of tumor cells automatically. Therefore, the strategy we developed provides a reliable platform for tumor diagnosis and biomarker research.

A high-integrated DNA biocomputing platform for MicroRNA sensing in living cells

DNA logic computing has captured increasing interest due to its ability to assemble programmable DNA computing elements for disease diagnosis, gene regulation, and targeted therapy. In this work, we developed an aptamer-equipped high-integrated DNA biocomputing platform (HIDBP-A) with a dual-recognition function that enabled cancer cell targeting. Dual microRNAs were the input signals and can perform AND logic operations. Compared to the free DNA biocomputing platform (FDBP), the integration of all computing elements into the same DNA tetrahedron greatly improved logic computing speed and efficiency owing to the confinement effect reflected by the high local concentration of computing elements. As a proof of concept, the utilization of microRNA as the input signal was beneficial for improving the scalability and flexibility of the sequence design of the logic nano-platform. Given that the different microRNAs were over-expressed in cancer cells, this new HIDBP-A has great promise in accurate diagnosis and logic-controlled disease treatment.

Therapeutic Applications of Programmable DNA Nanostructures

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) nanotechnology, a frontier in biomedical engineering, is an emerging field that has enabled the engineering of molecular-scale DNA materials with applications in biomedicine such as bioimaging, biodetection, and drug delivery over the past decades. The programmability of DNA nanostructures allows the precise engineering of DNA nanocarriers with controllable shapes, sizes, surface chemistries, and functions to deliver therapeutic and functional payloads to target cells with higher efficiency and enhanced specificity. Programmability and control over design also allow the creation of dynamic devices, such as DNA nanorobots, that can react to external stimuli and execute programmed tasks. This review focuses on the current findings and progress in the field, mainly on the employment of DNA nanostructures such as DNA origami nanorobots, DNA nanotubes, DNA tetrahedra, DNA boxes, and DNA nanoflowers in the biomedical field for therapeutic purposes. We will also discuss the fate of DNA nanostructures in living cells, the major obstacles to overcome, that is, the stability of DNA nanostructures in biomedical applications, and the opportunities for DNA nanostructure-based drug delivery in the future.

Progress in cancer drug delivery based on AS1411 oriented nanomaterials

Targeted cancer therapy has become one of the most important medical methods because of the spreading and metastatic nature of cancer. Based on the introduction of AS1411 and its four-chain structure, this paper reviews the research progress in cancer detection and drug delivery systems by modifying AS1411 aptamers based on graphene, mesoporous silica, silver and gold. The application of AS1411 in cancer treatment and drug delivery and the use of AS1411 as a targeting agent for the detection of cancer markers such as nucleoli were summarized from three aspects of active targeting, passive targeting and targeted nucleic acid apharmers. Although AS1411 has been withdrawn from clinical trials, the research surrounding its structural optimization is still very popular. Further progress has been made in the modification of nanoparticles loaded with TCM extracts by AS1411.

Construction of nanocarriers based on nucleic acids and their application in nanobiology delivery systems

In recent years, nanocarriers based on nucleic acids (NCNAs) have emerged as powerful and novel nanocarriers that are able to meet the demand for cancer cell-specific targeting. Functional dynamics analysis revealed good biocompatibility, low toxicity, and programmable structures, and their advantages include controllable size and modifiability. The development of novel hybrids has focused on the distinct roles of biosensing, drug and gene delivery, vaccine transport, photosensitization, counteracting drug resistance and functioning as carriers and logic gates. This review is divided into three parts: (1) DNA nanocarriers, (2) RNA nanocarriers, and (3) DNA/RNA hybrid nanocarriers and their biological applications. We also provide perspectives on possible future directions for growth in this field.

Tetrahedral DNA nanostructures for effective treatment of cancer: advances and prospects

Recently, DNA nanostructures with vast application potential in the field of biomedicine, especially in drug delivery. Among these, tetrahedral DNA nanostructures (TDN) have attracted interest worldwide due to their high stability, excellent biocompatibility, and simplicity of modification. TDN could be synthesized easily and reproducibly to serve as carriers for, chemotherapeutic drugs, nucleic acid drugs and imaging probes. Therefore, their applications include, but are not restricted to, drug delivery, molecular diagnostics, and biological imaging. In this review, we summarize the methods of functional modification and application of TDN in cancer treatment. Also, we discuss the pressing questions that should be targeted to increase the applicability of TDN in the future.

Self-Assembling Nucleic Acid Nanostructures Functionalized with Aptamers

Researchers have worked for many decades to master the rules of biomolecular design that would allow artificial biopolymer complexes to self-assemble and function similarly to the diverse biochemical constructs displayed in natural biological systems. The rules of nucleic acid assembly (dominated by Watson-Crick base-pairing) have been less difficult to understand and manipulate than the more complicated rules of protein folding. Therefore, nucleic acid nanotechnology has advanced more quickly than de novo protein design, and recent years have seen amazing progress in DNA and RNA design. By combining structural motifs with aptamers that act as affinity handles and add powerful molecular recognition capabilities, nucleic acid-based self-assemblies represent a diverse toolbox for use by bioengineers to create molecules with potentially revolutionary biological activities. In this review, we focus on the development of self-assembling nucleic acid nanostructures that are functionalized with nucleic acid aptamers and their great potential in wide ranging application areas.

Functionalizing Framework Nucleic-Acid-Based Nanostructures for Biomedical Application

Strategies for functionalizing diverse tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (tFNAs) have been extensively explored since the first successful fabrication of tFNA by Turberfield. One-pot annealing of at least four DNA single strands is the most common method to prepare tFNA, as it optimizes the cost, yield, and speed of assembly. Herein, the focus is on four key merits of tFNAs and their potential for biomedical applications. The natural ability of tFNA to scavenge reactive oxygen species, along with remarkable enhancement in cellular endocytosis and tissue permeability based on its appropriate size and geometry, promotes cell-material interactions to direct or probe cell behavior, especially to treat inflammatory and degenerative diseases. Moreover, the structural programmability of tFNA enables the development of static tFNA-based nanomaterials via engineering of functional oligonucleotides or therapeutic molecules, and dynamic tFNAs via attachment of stimuli-responsive DNA apparatuses, leading to potential applications in targeted therapies, tissue regeneration, antitumor strategies, and antibacterial treatment. Although there are impressive performance and significant progress, the challenges and prospects of functionalizing tFNA-based nanostructures are still indicated in this review.

AS1411 Aptamer Linked to DNA Nanostructures Diverts Its Traffic Inside Cancer Cells and Improves Its Therapeutic Efficacy

The nucleolin-binding G-quadruplex AS1411 aptamer has been widely used for cancer therapy and diagnosis and linked to nanoparticles for its selective targeting activity. We applied a computational and experimental integrated approach to study the effect of engineering AS1411 aptamer on an octahedral truncated DNA nanocage to obtain a nanostructure able to combine selective cancer-targeting and anti-tumor activity. The nanocages functionalized with one aptamer molecule (Apt-NC) displayed high stability in serum, were rapidly and selectively internalized in cancer cells through an AS1411-dependent mechanism, and showed over 200-fold increase in anti-cancer activity when compared with the free aptamer. Comparison of Apt-NCs and free AS1411 intracellular distribution showed that they traffic differently inside cells: Apt-NCs distributed through the endo-lysosomal pathway and were never found in the nuclei, while the free AS1411 was mostly found in the perinuclear region and in nucleoli. Molecular dynamics simulations indicated that the aptamer, when linked to the nanocage, sampled a limited conformational space, more confined than in the free state, which is characterized by a large number of metastable conformations. A different intracellular trafficking of Apt-NCs compared with free aptamer and the confined aptamer conformations induced by the nanocage were likely correlated with the high cytotoxic enhancement, suggesting a structure-function relationship for the AS1411 aptamer activity.

The biological applications of DNA nanomaterials: current challenges and future directions

DNA, a genetic material, has been employed in different scientific directions for various biological applications as driven by DNA nanotechnology in the past decades, including tissue regeneration, disease prevention, inflammation inhibition, bioimaging, biosensing, diagnosis, antitumor drug delivery, and therapeutics. With the rapid progress in DNA nanotechnology, multitudinous DNA nanomaterials have been designed with different shape and size based on the classic Watson-Crick base-pairing for molecular self-assembly. Some DNA materials could functionally change cell biological behaviors, such as cell migration, cell proliferation, cell differentiation, autophagy, and anti-inflammatory effects. Some single-stranded DNAs (ssDNAs) or RNAs with secondary structures via self-pairing, named aptamer, possess the ability of targeting, which are selected by systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) and applied for tumor targeted diagnosis and treatment. Some DNA nanomaterials with three-dimensional (3D) nanostructures and stable structures are investigated as drug carrier systems to delivery multiple antitumor medicine or gene therapeutic agents. While the functional DNA nanostructures have promoted the development of the DNA nanotechnology with innovative designs and preparation strategies, and also proved with great potential in the biological and medical use, there is still a long way to go for the eventual application of DNA materials in real life. Here in this review, we conducted a comprehensive survey of the structural development history of various DNA nanomaterials, introduced the principles of different DNA nanomaterials, summarized their biological applications in different fields, and discussed the current challenges and further directions that could help to achieve their applications in the future.

Erythromycin loaded by tetrahedral framework nucleic acids are more antimicrobial sensitive against Escherichia coli (E. coli)

Erythromycin is a commonly used broad-spectrum antibiotic, but resistance to this antibiotic makes its use less effective. Considerable efforts, beside finding alternatives, are needed to enhance its antimicrobial effect and stability against bacteria. Tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (tFNAs), a novel delivery vehicle with a three-dimensional nanostructure, have been studied as a carrying platform of antineoplastic drugs. In this study, the use of tFNAs in delivering erythromycin into Escherichia coli (E. coli) was investigated for the first time. The tFNAs vehicle increased the bacterial uptake of erythromycin and promoted membrane destabilization. Moreover, it increased the permeability of the bacterial cell wall, and reduced drug resistance by improving the movement of the drug across the membrane. The tFNAs-based delivery system enhanced the effects of erythromycin against E. coli. It may therefore provide an effective delivery vehicle for erythromycin in targeting antibiotic-resistant bacteria with thick cell wall.

Cellulose Nanofiber-Based Hydrogels Embedding 5-FU Promote Pyroptosis Activation in Breast Cancer Cells and Support Human Adipose-Derived Stem Cell Proliferation, Opening New Perspectives for Breast Tissue Engineering

The structure and biocompatibility analysis of a hydrogel based on cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) combined with alginate/pectin (A.CNF or P.CNF) and enriched with 1% or 5% 5-FU revealed more favorable properties for the cellular component when pectin was dispersed within CNFs. 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is an antimetabolite fluoropyrimidine used as antineoplastic drug for the treatment of multiple solid tumors. 5-FU activity leads to caspase-1 activation, secretion and maturation of interleukins (IL)-1, IL-18 and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation. Furthermore, the effects of embedding 5-FU in P.CNF were explored in order to suppress breast tumor cell growth and induce inflammasome complex activation together with extra- and intracellular ROS generation. Exposure of tumor cells to P.CNF/5-FU resulted in a strong cytotoxic effect, an increased level of caspase-1 released in the culture media and ROS production—the latter directly proportional to the concentration of anti-tumor agent embedded in the scaffolds. Simultaneously, 5-FU determined the increase of p53 and caspase-1 expressions, both at gene and protein levels. In conclusion, P.CNF/5-FU scaffolds proved to be efficient against breast tumor cells growth due to pyroptosis induction. Furthermore, biocompatibility and the potential to support human adipose-derived stem cell growth were demonstrated, suggesting that these 3D systems could be used in soft tissue reconstruction post-mastectomy.

Aptamer-Programmed DNA Nanodevices for Advanced, Targeted Cancer Theranostics

DNA has been demonstrated to be a versatile material for construction at the nanoscale. DNA nanodevices are highly programmable and allow functionalization with multiple entities such as imaging modalities (fluorophores), targeting entities (aptamers), drug conjugation (chemical linkers), and triggered release (photoresponsive molecules). These features enhance the use of DNA nanodevices in biological applications, catalyzing the rapid growth of this domain of research. In this review, we focus on recent progress in the development and use of aptamer-functionalized DNA nanodevices as theranostic agents, their characterization, applications as delivery platforms, and advantages. We provide a brief background on the development of aptamers and DNA nanodevices in biomedical applications, and we present specific applications of these entities in cancer diagnosis and therapeutics. We conclude with a perspective on the challenges and possible solutions for the clinical translation of aptamer-functionalized DNA nanodevices in the domain of cancer therapeutics.

Enhanced Penetrability of a Tetrahedral Framework Nucleic Acid by Modification with iRGD for DOX-Targeted Delivery to Triple-Negative Breast Cancer

Poor penetrability and nonselective distribution of chemotherapeutic drugs are the main obstacles for chemotherapy for triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC). In our work, we developed a DNA-based drug delivery system to surmount these barriers. In addition, a tetrahedral framework nucleic acid (tFNA) was employed to load doxorubicin (DOX) with iRGD decoration to form a novel nanoparticle (tFNA/DOX@iRGD). The RGD sequence and the CendR motif in iRGD are used in tumor targeting and tissue penetration, respectively. Based on the sustained serum stability and pH-sensitive release behavior of DOX, tFNA/DOX@iRGD exhibited superiority for biomedical application. Moreover, tFNA/DOX@iRGD showed excellent deep penetration and drug accumulation in three-dimensional (3D) multicellular tumor spheroids compared to DOX and tFNA/DOX. Additionally, the therapeutic effect was verified in a 4T1 subcutaneous tumor model, and the complexes displayed a superior antitumor and antiangiogenic efficiency with fewer collateral damages. Therefore, these findings suggested that tFNA/DOX@iRGD might be a more effective pattern for drug delivery and TNBC therapy.

A Targeted Nano Drug Delivery System of AS1411 Functionalized Graphene Oxide Based Composites

A novel method for the preparation of antitumor drug vehicles has been optimized. Biological materials of chitosan oligosaccharide (CO) and γ-polyglutamic acid (γ-PGA) have previously been employed as modifiers to covalently modify graphene oxide (GO), which in turn loaded doxorubicin (DOX) to obtain a nano drug delivery systems of graphene oxide based composites (GO-CO-γ-PGA-DOX). The system was not equipped with the ability of initiative targeting, thus resulting into toxicity and side effects on normal tissues or organs. In order to further improve the targeting property of the system, the nucleic acid aptamer NH2 -AS1411 (APT) of targeted nucleolin (C23) was used to conjugate on GO-CO-γ-PGA to yield the targeted nano drug delivery system APT-GO-CO-γ-PGA. The structure, composition, dispersion, particle size and morphology properties of the synthesized complex have been studied using multiple characterization methods. Drug loading and release profile data showed that APT-GO-CO-γ-PGA is provided with high drug loading capacity and is capable of controlled and sustained release of DOX. Cell experimental results indicated that since C23 was overexpressed on the surface of Hela cells but not on the surface of Beas-2B cells, APT-GO-CO-γ-PGA-DOX can target Hela cells and make increase toxicity to Hela cells than Beas-2B cells, and the IC50 value of APT-GO-CO-γ-PGA-DOX was 3.23±0.04 μg/mL. All results proved that APT-GO-CO-γ-PGA can deliver antitumor drugs in a targeted manner, and achieve the effect of reducing poison, which indicated that the targeted carrier exhibits a broad application prospect in the field of biomedicine.

JKAMP inhibits the osteogenic capacity of adipose-derived stem cells in diabetic osteoporosis by modulating the Wnt signaling pathway through intragenic DNA methylation

Background

Diabetic osteoporosis (DOP) is a systemic metabolic bone disease caused by diabetes mellitus (DM). Adipose-derived stem cells (ASCs) play an important role in bone regeneration. Our previous study confirmed that ASCs from DOP mice (DOP-ASCs) have a lower osteogenesis potential compared with control ASCs (CON-ASCs). However, the cause of this poor osteogenesis has not been elucidated. Therefore, this study investigated the underlying mechanism of the decline in the osteogenic potential of DOP-ASCs from the perspective of epigenetics and explored methods to enhance their osteogenic capacity.

Methods

The expression level of JNK1-associated membrane protein (JKAMP) and degree of DNA methylation in CON-ASCs and DOP-ASCs were measured by mRNA expression profiling and MeDIP sequencing, respectively. JKAMP small interfering RNA (siRNA) and a Jkamp overexpression plasmid were used to assess the role of JKAMP in osteogenic differentiation of CON-ASCs and DOP-ASCs. Immunofluorescence, qPCR, and western blotting were used to measure changes in expression of Wnt signaling pathway-related genes and osteogenesis-related molecules after osteogenesis induction. Alizarin red and ALP staining was used to confirm the osteogenic potential of stem cells. Bisulfite-specific PCR (BSP) was used to detect JKAMP methylation degree.

Results

Expression of JKAMP and osteogenesis-related molecules (RUNX2 and OPN) in DOP-ASCs was decreased significantly in comparison with CON-ASCs. JKAMP silencing inhibited the Wnt signaling pathway and reduced the osteogenic ability of CON-ASCs. Overexpression of JKAMP in DOP-ASCs rescued the impaired osteogenic capacity caused by DOP. Moreover, JKAMP in DOP-ASCs contained intragenic DNA hypermethylated regions related to the downregulation of JKAMP expression.

Conclusions

Intragenic DNA methylation inhibits the osteogenic ability of DOP-ASCs by suppressing expression of JKAMP and the Wnt signaling pathway. This study shows an epigenetic explanation for the reduced osteogenic ability of DOP-ASCs and provides a potential therapeutic target to prevent and treat osteoporosis.

Tetrahedral Framework Nucleic Acids Loaded with Aptamer AS1411 for siRNA Delivery and Gene Silencing in Malignant Melanoma

siRNA is found to effectively knock down the target gene in cells, which is considered a promising strategy for gene therapy. However, the application of siRNA is limited due to its low efficiency of the cellular uptake. Tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (tFNAs) are synthesized by four single-stranded DNAs and show multiple biological functions in recent studies, especially suitable for drug delivery. More than 60% of malignant melanomas are associated with Braf gene mutation, an attractive therapeutic target for RNA interference. In this study, we modified anti-Braf siRNA (siBraf) with tFNAs to downregulate the target gene. Meanwhile, we directly incorporated AS1411 (a DNA aptamer) to our nanostructure, which assists tFNAs to improve the cellular uptake efficacy of siBraf significantly. The results indicated that tFNAs-AS1411-siBraf exhibited more potent activity to cleave Braf mRNA than free siBraf. This study may provide a new idea for the combination therapy of siRNA and aptamers via DNA nanomaterials to achieve gene silencing.

Tetrahedral DNA Nanoconjugates for Simultaneous Measurement of Telomerase Activity and miRNA

In this study, a tetrahedral DNA nanostructure was first self-assembled; this was then conjugated with gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and carbon nanodots (CDs). The fabricated nanocomposites allow simultaneous analysis of telomerase activity and miRNA with dual fluorescence channels. By further introducing an iRGD peptide sequence, the nanoconjuates can be conveniently transferred inside living cells for in situ imaging. The analytical performances and anti-jamming capabilities are excellent. Meanwhile, the materials are highly biocompatible for intracellular applications. Therefore, the proposed biosystem shows great promise as a powerful tool for quantitative analysis of the dual biomarkers. The strategy can also be further exploited as a versatile platform for in situ detection of many other targets for early disease diagnosis.

The applications of functionalized DNA nanostructures in bioimaging and cancer therapy

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecular carrier of genetic information that can be fabricated into functional nanomaterials in biochemistry and engineering fields. Those DNA nanostructures, synthesized via Watson-Crick base pairing, show a wide range of attributes along with excellent applicability, precise programmability, and extremely low cytotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. In this review, the applications of functionalized DNA nanostructures in bioimaging and tumor therapy are summarized. We focused on approaches involving DNA origami nanostructures due to their widespread use in previous and current reports. Non-DNA origami nanostructures such as DNA tetrahedrons are also covered. Finally, the remaining challenges and perspectives regarding DNA nanostructures in the biomedical arena are discussed.

Advances in intelligent DNA nanomachines for targeted cancer therapy

As an emerging field, DNA nanotechnology has been applied to the fabrication of drug delivery systems. Unprecedented spatial addressability and intrinsic sequence encoding enable DNA strands to self-assemble into well-defined 2D and 3D DNA nanostructures with specifically controlled sizes, shapes and surface charges. Multifunctional DNA nanostructures have been created and applied as promising platforms for drug delivery, imaging, and theranostics. Advantages of chemotherapy, gene therapy, and immunotherapy, among others, have been integrated into such functional nanodevices, showing potential in tumor-targeted therapy and diagnosis. In this review, we summarize general methods for the construction of DNA nanodevices and focus on targeting strategies favored by the compatibility of DNA nanotechnology. Additionally, we highlight the outlook and challenges facing the use of DNA nanotechnology in cancer therapy.

Chitosan/carbon quantum dot/aptamer complex as a potential anticancer drug delivery system towards the release of 5-fluorouracil

Nowadays, nanotechnology contributes diminishing side effects rather than traditional therapeutic methods like chemotherapy. Thus, designing a biocompatible specific targeted nanocarrier with prolonged half-life and enhanced bio-availability using simultaneous cell imaging seems urgent. To meet this demand, 5-fluorouracil-chitosan‑carbon quantum dot-aptamer (5-FU-CS-CQD-Apt) nanoparticle was successfully synthesized for specific targeted delivery of 5-FU anti-cancer drug used in breast cancer treatment and this was done by following facile water-in-oil (W/O) emulsification method. Physicochemical properties were characterized and high drug loading and entrapment efficiency were achieved. The average size and zeta potential of the nanoparticle were 122.7 nm and + 31.2 mV, respectively. According to the in-vitro drug release profile, 5-FU-CS-CQD-Apt released the drug in a controlled manner. MTT assay, flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, and gene expression results demonstrated that the blank nanoparticle was biocompatible, and 5-FU-CS-CQD-Apt could kill tumor cells efficiently. Bcl-2/Bax ratio was decreased after 5-FU-CS-CQD-Apt treatment in MCF-7 cells. It was concluded that 5-FU-CS-CQD-Apt could be used as a potential nanocarrier in breast cancer treatment.

Tetrahedral DNA nanostructures as drug delivery and bioimaging platforms in cancer therapy

Structural DNA nanotechnology enables DNA to be used as nanomaterials for novel nanostructure construction with unprecedented functionalities. Artificial DNA nanostructures can be designed and generated with precisely controlled features, resulting in its utility in bionanotechnological and biomedical applications. A tetrahedral DNA nanostructure (TDN), the most popular DNA nanostructure, with high stability and simple synthesis procedure, is a promising candidate as nanocarriers in drug delivery and bioimaging platforms, particularly in precision medicine as well as diagnosis for cancer therapy. Recent evidence collectively indicated that TDN successfully enhanced cancer therapeutic efficiency both in vitro and in vivo. Here, we summarize the development of TDN and highlight various aspects of TDN applications in cancer therapy based on previous reports, including anticancer drug loading, photodynamic therapy, therapeutic oligonucleotides, bioimaging platforms, and other molecules and discuss a perspective in opportunities and challenges for future TDN‐based nanomedicine.

Tetrahedral framework nucleic acids promote scarless healing of cutaneous wounds via the AKT-signaling pathway

While the skin is considered the first line of defense in the human body, there are some vulnerabilities that render it susceptible to certain threats, which is an issue that is recognized by both patients and doctors. Cutaneous wound healing is a series of complex processes that involve many types of cells, such as fibroblasts and keratinocytes. This study showed that tetrahedral framework nucleic acids (tFNAs), a type of self-assembled nucleic-acid material, have the ability to promote keratinocyte(HaCaT cell line) and fibroblast(HSF cell line) proliferation and migration in vitro. In addition, tFNAs increased the secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) in HSF cells and reduced the production of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) and interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) in HaCaT cells by activating the AKT-signaling pathway. During in vivo experiments, tFNA treatments accelerated the healing process in skin wounds and decreased the development of scars, compared with the control treatment that did not use tFNAs. This is the first study to demonstrate that nanophase materials with the biological features of nucleic acids accelerate the healing of cutaneous wounds and reduce scarring, which indicates the potential application of tFNAs in skin tissue regeneration.

Dynamic DNA Assemblies in Biomedical Applications

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) has been widely used to construct homogeneous structures with increasing complexity for biological and biomedical applications due to their powerful functionalities. Especially, dynamic DNA assemblies (DDAs) have demonstrated the ability to simulate molecular motions and fluctuations in bionic systems. DDAs, including DNA robots, DNA probes, DNA nanochannels, DNA templates, etc., can perform structural transformations or predictable behaviors in response to corresponding stimuli and show potential in the fields of single molecule sensing, drug delivery, molecular assembly, etc. A wave of exploration of the principles in designing and usage of DDAs has occurred, however, knowledge on these concepts is still limited. Although some previous reviews have been reported, systematic and detailed reviews are rare. To achieve a better understanding of the mechanisms in DDAs, herein, the recent progress on the fundamental principles regarding DDAs and their applications are summarized. The relative assembly principles and computer-aided software for their designing are introduced. The advantages and disadvantages of each software are discussed. The motional mechanisms of the DDAs are classified into exogenous and endogenous stimuli-triggered responses. The special dynamic behaviors of DDAs in biomedical applications are also summarized. Moreover, the current challenges and future directions of DDAs are proposed.

Functionalized selenium nanoparticles for targeted siRNA delivery silence Derlin1 and promote antitumor efficacy against cervical cancer

Small interfering RNA (siRNA) exhibits great potential as a novel therapeutic option due to its highly sequence-specific ability to silence genes. However, efficient and safe delivery carriers are required for developing novel therapeutic paradigms. Thus, the successful development of efficient delivery platforms for siRNA is a crucial issue for the development of siRNA-based drugs in cancer treatments. In this study, biocompatible selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) were loaded with RGDfC peptide to fabricate tumor-targeting gene delivery vehicle RGDfC-SeNPs. Subsequently, RGDfC-SeNPs were loaded with Derlin1-siRNA to fabricate RGDfC-Se@siRNA, which are functionalized selenium nanoparticles. RGDfC-Se@siRNA showed greater uptake in HeLa cervical cancer cells in comparison with that in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs), verifying the RGDfC-mediated specific uptake of RGDfC-Se@siRNA. RGDfC-Se@siRNA was capable of entering HeLa cells via clathrin-associated endocytosis, and showed faster siRNA release in a cancer cell microenvironment in comparison with a normal physiological environment. qPCR and western blotting assays both indicated that RGDfC-Se@siRNA exhibited an obvious gene silencing efficacy in HeLa cells. RGDfC-Se@siRNA suppressed the invasion, migration and the proliferation of HeLa cells, and triggered HeLa cell apoptosis. Moreover, RGDfC-Se@siRNA induced the disruption of mitochondrial membrane potentials. Meanwhile, RGDfC-Se@siRNA enhanced the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in HeLa cell, suggesting that mitochondrial dysfunction mediated by ROS might play a significant role in RGDfC-Se@siRNA-induced apoptosis. Interestingly, RGDfC-SeNPs@siRNA exhibited significant antitumor activity in a HeLa tumor-bearing mouse model. Additionally, RGDfC-SeNPs@siRNA is nontoxic to main organ of mouse. The above results indicate that RGDfC-Se@siRNA provides a promising potential for cervical cancer therapy.