The Directing Group: A Tool for Efficient and Selective C–F Bond Activation

Engineered Nanoporous Frameworks for Adsorption Cooling Applications

The energy demand for traditional vapor-compressed technology for space cooling continues to soar year after year due to global warming and the increasing human population's need to improve living and working conditions. Thus, there is a growing demand for eco-friendly technologies that use sustainable or waste energy resources. This review discusses the properties of various refrigerants used for adsorption cooling applications followed by a brief discussion on the thermodynamic cycle. Next, sorbents traditionally used for cooling are reviewed to emphasize the need for advanced capture materials with superior properties to improve refrigerant sorption. The remainder of the review focus on studies using engineered nanoporous frameworks (ENFs) with various refrigerants for adsorption cooling applications. The effects of the various factors that play a role in ENF-refrigerant pair selection, including pore structure/dimension/shape, morphology, open-metal sites, pore chemistry and possible presence of defects, are reviewed. Next, in-depth insights into the sorbent-refrigerant interaction, and pore filling mechanism gained through a combination of characterization techniques and computational modeling are discussed. Finally, we outline the challenges and opportunities related to using ENFs for adsorption cooling applications and provide our views on the future of this technology.

Recent approaches for the synthesis of heterocycles from amidines via a metal catalyzed C-H functionalization reaction

Transition metal catalyzed C-H bond activation has become one of the most important tools for constructing new chemical bonds. Introducing directing groups to the substrates is the key to a successful reaction, these directing groups can also be further transformed in the reaction. Amidines with their unique structure and reactivity are ideal substrates for transition metal-catalyzed C-H transformations. This review describes the major advances and mechanistic investigations of the C-H activation/annulation tandem reactions of amidines until early 2024, focusing on metal-catalyzed C-H activation of amidines with unsaturated compounds, such as alkynes, ketone, vinylene carbonate, cyclopropanols and their derivatives. Meanwhile this manuscript also explores the reaction of amidines with different carbene precursors, for example diazo compounds, azide, triazoles, pyriodotriazoles, and sulfoxonium ylides as well as their own C-H bond activation/cyclization reactions. A bright outlook is provided at the end of the manuscript.

Growth of Single Crystalline 2D Materials beyond Graphene on Non-metallic Substrates

The advent of 2D materials has ushered in the exploration of their synthesis, characterization and application. While plenty of 2D materials have been synthesized on various metallic substrates, interfacial interaction significantly affects their intrinsic electronic properties. Additionally, the complex transfer process presents further challenges. In this context, experimental efforts are devoted to the direct growth on technologically important semiconductor/insulator substrates. This review aims to uncover the effects of substrate on the growth of 2D materials. The focus is on non-metallic substrate used for epitaxial growth and how this highlights the necessity for phase engineering and advanced characterization at atomic scale. Special attention is paid to monoelemental 2D structures with topological properties. The conclusion is drawn through a discussion of the requirements for integrating 2D materials with current semiconductor-based technology and the unique properties of heterostructures based on 2D materials. Overall, this review describes how 2D materials can be fabricated directly on non-metallic substrates and the exploration of growth mechanism at atomic scale.

Palladium-Catalyzed Defluorinative Alkylation of gem-Difluoroalkenes with Cyclopropanols: Stereoselective Synthesis of γ-Fluorinated γ,δ-Unsaturated Ketones

A palladium-catalyzed defluorinative alkylation of gem-difluoroalkenes with cyclopropyl alcohols was developed. A range of γ-fluorinated γ,δ-unsaturated ketones were constructed in good yields with excellent stereoselectivities. In addition, by base-mediated intramolecular nucleophilic vinylic substitution (SNV), the products could be further transformed to 2,5-dimethylenetetrahydrofurans and analogues with excellent stereoselectivities.

Nickel-catalysed chelation-assisted reductive defluorinative sulfenylation of trifluoropropionic acid derivatives

Herein we reported a directing-group assisted strategy for nickel-catalysed reductive defluorinative sulfenylation of trifluoropropionic acid derivatives with disulfides in the presence of Zn, involving triple C-F bond cleavage. This process yielded a diverse array of carbonyl-sulfide di-substituted alkenes in moderate to good yields with good functional group tolerance. Specifically, the reactions exhibited high E-selectivity with E/Z ratio up to >99 : 1.

Metallomimetic C-F Activation Catalysis by Simple Phosphines

Delivering metallomimetic reactivity from simple p-block compounds is highly desirable in the search to replace expensive, scarce precious metals by cheap and abundant elements in catalysis. This contribution demonstrates that metallomimetic catalysis, involving facile redox cycling between the P(III) and P(V) oxidation states, is possible using only simple, cheap, and readily available trialkylphosphines without the need to enforce unusual geometries at phosphorus or use external oxidizing/reducing agents. Hydrodefluorination and aminodefluorination of a range of fluoroarenes was realized with good to very good yields under mild conditions. Experimental and computational mechanistic studies show that the phosphines undergo oxidative addition of the fluoroaromatic substrate via a Meisenheimer-like transition state to form a fluorophosphorane. This undergoes a pseudotransmetalation step with a silane, via initial fluoride transfer from P to Si, to give experimentally observed phosphonium ions. Hydride transfer from a hydridosilicate counterion then leads to a hydridophosphorane, which undergoes reductive elimination of the product to reform the phosphine catalyst. This behavior is analogous to many classical transition-metal-catalyzed reactions and so is a rare example of both functional and mechanistically metallomimetic behavior in catalysis by a main-group element system. Crucially, the reagents used are cheap, readily available commercially, and easy to handle, making these reactions a realistic prospect in a wide range of academic and industrial settings.

Nickel-Catalyzed Functionalization Reactions Involving C-H Bond Activation via an Amidate-Promoted Strategy and Its Extension to the Activation of C-F, C-O, C-S, and C-CN Bonds

ConspectusThe development of functionalization reactions involving the activation of C-H bonds has evolved extensively due to the atom and step economy associated with such reactions. Among these reactions, chelation assistance has been shown to provide a powerful solution to the serious issues of reactivity and regioselectivity faced in the activation of C-H bonds. The vast majority of C-H functionalization reactions reported thus far has involved the use of precious metals. Kleiman and Dubeck reported the cyclonickelation of azobenzene and NiCp2 in which an azo group directs a Ni center to activate the ortho C-H bond in close proximity. Although this stoichiometric reaction was discovered earlier than that for other transition-metal complexes, its development as a catalytic reaction was delayed. No general catalytic systems were available for Ni-catalyzed C-H functionalization reactions for a long time. This Account details our group's development of Ni(0)- and Ni(II)-catalyzed chelation-assisted C-H functionalization reactions. It also highlights how the new strategy can be extended to the activation of other unreactive bonds.In the early 2010s, we found that the Ni(0)-catalyzed reaction of aromatic amides that contain a 2-pyridinylmethylamine moiety as a directing group with alkynes results in C-H/N-H oxidative annulation to give isoquinolinones. In addition, the combination of a Ni(II) catalyst and an 8-aminoquinoline directing group was found to be a superior combination for developing a wide variety of C-H functionalization reactions with various electrophiles. The reactions were proposed to include the formation of unstable Ni(IV) and/or Ni(III) species; the generation of such high-valence Ni species was rare at that time, but since then, many papers dealing with DFT and organometallic studies have appeared in the literature in attempts to understand the mechanism. Based on our in-depth considerations of the mechanism with respect to why an N,N-bidentate directing group is required, we realized that the formation of a N-Ni bond by the oxidative addition of a N-H bond to a Ni(0) species or a ligand exchange between a N-H bond and Ni(II) species is the key step. We concluded that the precoordination of the N(sp2) atom in the directing group positions the Ni species to be in close proximity to the N-H bond which permits the formation of a N-Ni bond. Based on this working hypothesis, we carried out the reaction using KOtBu as a base and found that the Ni(0)-catalyzed reaction of aromatic amides that do not contain such a specific directing group with alkynes results in the formation of the desired isoquinolinone, in which an amidate anion acts as the actual directing group. Remarkably, this strategy was found to be applicable to the activation of various other unreactive bonds such as C-F, C-O, C-S, and C-CN.

Defluorinative Esterification and 1,3-Dietherification of (Trifluoromethyl)alkenes with Alcohols: Controlled Synthesis of α-Arylacrylates and 1,3-Diethers

Purification-controlled defluorinative esterification and 1,3-dietherification of (trifluoromethyl)alkenes with alcohols are achieved, delivering various useful α-arylacrylates and 1,3-diethers in high yields. Remarkably, this reaction enables the cleavage of three C-F bonds in a CF₃ group, and it is transition-metal free and catalyst-free, has simple operation, features mild conditions, is gram-scalable, and has broad substrate scope and valuable functional group tolerance. Mechanism studies indicated that the isolated monofluoroalkene-decorated 1,3-diethers are the intermediates, and the acidic property of silica gel assisted the defluorinative transformation of these 1,3-diethers to access α-arylacrylates with H₂O as the oxygen source.

Transition metal-free photochemical C-F activation for the preparation of difluorinated-oxindole derivatives

The development of strategies for single and selective C-F bond activation represents an important avenue to overcome limitations in the synthesis of valuable fluorine-containing compounds. The synthetic and medicinal research communities would benefit from new routes that access such relevant molecules in a simple manner. Herein we disclose a straightforward and mechanistically distinct pathway to generate gem-difluoromethyl radicals and their installation onto N-arylmethacrylamides for the preparation of valuable difluorinated oxindole derivatives. To achieve operational simplicity, the use of a readily available benzenethiol as a photocatalyst under open-to-air conditions was developed, demonstrating the facile multigram preparation of the targeted fluorinated molecules. Additionally, dispersion-corrected density functional theory (DFT) and empirical investigations provide a new basis to support the proposed reaction pathway, indicating that arene thiolate is an efficient organophotocatalyst for this transformation.

Ni-catalyzed C-F activation to construct C-P bond with P-P(O) and P(O)OR mediation

Here we developed an efficient Ni-catalyzed C-F bond phosphorylation of aryl fluorides via the crucial intermediates of P-P(O) and P(O)OR. P-P(O) mediated organophosphorus generation is observed for active aryl fluorides, whereas inactive aryl fluorides can also be activated and phosphorylated via a P(O)OR-mediated pathway, which is barely reported yet. Facile scale-up to the gram level and the upgrading of the bioactive molecule make this protocol to have promising applications in synthetic chemistry.

Catalytic and Chemodivergent Synthesis of 1-Substituted 9H-Pyrrolo[1,2-a]indoles via Annulation of β-CF3 Enones with 3-Substituted Indoles

Chemodivergent reactions are more advantageous in organic synthesis that yield diversely functionalized scaffolds from common starting materials. Herein, we report an efficient metal-free chemodivergent protocol for the synthesis of 1-substituted 9H-pyrrolo[1,2-a]indole derivatives in the presence of catalytic amounts of Lewis acid/Brønsted acid conditions using 3-substituted indoles and β-trifluoromethyl-α,β-unsaturated ketones. Fine-tuning of the catalyst and solvent system in the reaction conditions deliver the trifluoromethyl, trifluoroethylcarboxylate, or carboxylic acid substituents on the C1-position of 9H-pyrrolo[1,2-a]indole derivatives in situ. It is postulated that the solvent and LA/BA catalyst interaction was found to be crucial for the catalytic C-F activation in these transformations.

Bimetallic Metal-Organic Coordination Polymers Facilitated the Selective C-F Cleavage of Polyfluoroarenes

Selective C-F bond cleavage of polyfluoroarenes has attracted tremendous interest due to its promising applications in introducing fluorinated building blocks into organic molecules. However, it remains a challenge to achieve highly site-selective C-F bond cleavage because of the intrinsic inertness of the C-F bond and the difficulty in distinguishing specific C-F bonds on the aromatic ring. Herein we report an efficient nucleophilic aromatic substitution (S_NAr) reaction of polyfluoroarenes with Grignard reagents that employs MnFe-based bimetallic metal-organic coordination polymers (MOCPs) as recyclable and reusable heterogeneous catalysts. Significantly, in this reaction, the prepared MOCP (Mn-Fe) catalyst exhibited excellent activity in selective C-F bond cleavage and afforded a series of functionalized polyfluoroarenes in moderate to excellent yields (up to 96%). This work highlights the potential of MOCP catalysts to serve as a tunable platform in Lewis acid catalysis.

Transition-Metal-Free, Site-Selective C-F Arylation of Polyfluoroarenes via Electrophotocatalysis

Direct C_Ar-F arylation is effective and sustainable for synthesis of polyfluorobiaryls with different degrees of fluorination, which are important motifs in medical and material chemistry. However, with no aid of transition metals, the engagement of C_Ar-F bond activation has proved difficult. Herein, an unprecedented transition-metal-free strategy is reported for site-selective C_Ar-F arylation of polyfluoroarenes with simple (het)arenes. By merging N,N-bis(2,6-diisopropylphenyl)perylene-3,4,9,10-bis(dicarboximide)-catalyzed electrophotocatalytic reduction and anodic nitroxyl radical oxidation in an electrophotocatalytic cell, various polyfluoroaromatics (2F-6F and 8F), especially inactive partially fluorinated aromatics, undergo sacrificial-reagents-free C-F bond arylation with high regioselectivity, and the yields are comparable to those for reported transition-metal catalysis. This atom- and step-economic protocol features a paired electrocatalysis with organic mediators in both cathodic and anodic processes. The broad substrate scope and good functional-group compatibility highlight the merits of this operationally simple strategy. Moreover, the easy gram-scale synthesis and late-stage functionalization collectively advocate for the practical value, which would promote the vigorous development of fluorine chemistry.

Recent Advances in Transition-Metal-Catalyzed C-H Functionalization of Ferrocene Amides

During the past decades, in synthetic organic chemistry, directing-group-assisted C-H functionalization is found to be a key tool for the expedient and site-selective construction of C-C and hybrid bonds. Among C-H functionalization of ferrocene derivatives, the directed group strategy is undoubtedly the most commonly used method. Compared to the other directing groups, ferrocene amides can be synthesized easily and are now recognized as one of the most efficient devices for the selective functionalization of certain positions because its metal centre permits fine, tuneable and reversible coordination. The family of amide directing groups mainly comprises monodentate and bidentate directing groups, which are categorized on the basis of coordination sites. In this review, various C-H bond functionalization reactions of ferrocene using amide directing groups are broadly discussed.

Selective Nickel-Catalyzed Hydrodefluorination of Amides Using Sodium Borohydride

Hydrodefluorination selective to the ortho position to amides is accomplished under mild conditions using sodium borohydride and a nickel catalyst. The facile formation of a nickelacycle intermediate with a specific geometry ensures selectivity without the need for electronic directing groups, and fluorine atoms in other positions remain intact. This method avoids the use of stoichiometric silanes which are typical for most other defluorination reactions, resulting in virtually no organic waste byproducts.

Palladium-Catalyzed Unimolecular Fragment Coupling of N-Allylamides via Elimination of Isocyanate

Transition metal-catalyzed unimolecular fragment coupling (UFC) is defined as processes that forge new chemical bonds through the extrusion of molecules, such as CO and CO₂, and the subsequent recombination of the remaining fragments. Herein, we report on a new UFC reaction that involves the palladium-catalyzed elimination of an isocyanate fragment from an amide, with the formation of carbon-carbon and carbon-heteroatom bonds. An organometallic intermediate that is relevant to the catalytic reaction was characterized by X-ray crystallography. This UFC reaction enables the late-stage transformation of an amide functionality, allowing amides to be used as a convertible directing or protecting group.

Nickel‐Catalyzed C sp2 −OMe Functionalization for Chemoselective Aromatic Homologation En Route to Nanographenes

A Ni‐catalyzed C_sp2−OMe ortho‐functionalization methodology to form chemoselectively alkyne monoannulation or aromatic homologation products is reported as a novel protocol towards the valorisation of substrates containing C_sp2−OMe units. Double activation of C_sp2−OMe and C_sp2−F bonds is also demonstrated. Further use of aromatic homologation products towards the synthesis of nanographene‐like compounds is described.