1
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Cook A, Dearborn MA, Anderberg TM, Vaidya K, Jureller JE, Esser-Kahn AP, Squires AH. Polymer Patterning by Laser-Induced Multipoint Initiation of Frontal Polymerization. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2024; 16:17973-17980. [PMID: 38418392 PMCID: PMC11009908 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.4c00216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024]
Abstract
Frontal polymerization (FP) is an approach for thermosetting plastics at a lower energy cost than an autoclave. The potential to generate simultaneous propagation of multiple polymerization fronts has been discussed as an exciting possibility. However, FP initiated at more than two points simultaneously has not been demonstrated. Multipoint initiation could enable both large-scale material fabrication and unique pattern generation. Here, the authors present laser-patterned photothermal heating as a method for simultaneous initiation of FP at multiple locations in a 2-D sample. Carbon black particles are mixed into liquid resin (dicyclopentadiene) to enhance absorption of light from a Ti:sapphire laser (800 nm) focused on a sample. The laser is time-shared by rapid steering among initiation points, generating polymerization using up to seven simultaneous points of initiation. This process results in the formation of both symmetric and asymmetric seam patterns resulting from the collision of fronts. The authors also present and validate a theoretical framework for predicting the seam patterns formed by front collisions. This framework allows the design of novel patterns via an inverse solution for determining the initiation points required to form a desired pattern. Future applications of this approach could enable rapid, energy-efficient manufacturing of novel composite-like patterned materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrés
L. Cook
- Department
of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Mason A. Dearborn
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Trevor M. Anderberg
- Department
of Physics, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Kavya Vaidya
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Justin E. Jureller
- James
Franck Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Aaron P. Esser-Kahn
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Institute
for Biophysical Dynamics, University of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Allison H. Squires
- Pritzker
School of Molecular Engineering, University
of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
- Institute
for Biophysical Dynamics, University of
Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
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2
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Lessard JJ, Mejia EB, Kim AJ, Zhang Z, Berkey MG, Medina-Barreto ZS, Ewoldt RH, Sottos NR, Moore JS. Unraveling Reactivity Differences: Room-Temperature Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization (ROMP) versus Frontal ROMP. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:7216-7221. [PMID: 38441481 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.4c01578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
In this study, we explore the distinct reactivity patterns between frontal ring-opening metathesis polymerization (FROMP) and room-temperature solventless ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP). Despite their shared mechanism, we find that FROMP is less sensitive to inhibitor concentration than room-temperature ROMP. By increasing the initiator-to-monomer ratio for a fixed inhibitor/initiator quantity, we find reduction in the ROMP background reactivity at room temperature (i.e., increased resin pot life). At elevated temperatures where inhibitor dissociation prevails, accelerated frontal polymerization rates are observed because of the concentrated presence of the initiator. Surprisingly, the strategy of employing higher initiator loading enhances both pot life and front speeds, which leads to FROMP rates exceeding prior reported values by over 5 times. This counterintuitive behavior is attributed to an increase in the proximity of the inhibitor to the initiator within the bulk resin and to whether the temperature favors coordination or dissociation of the inhibitor. A rapid method was developed for assessing resin pot life, and a straightforward model for active initiator behavior was established. Modified resin systems enabled direct ink writing of robust thermoset structures at rates much faster than previously possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob J Lessard
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
| | - Edgar B Mejia
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
| | - Abbie J Kim
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
| | - Zhang Zhang
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
| | - Mya G Berkey
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
| | - Zina S Medina-Barreto
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
| | - Randy H Ewoldt
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
| | - Nancy R Sottos
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
| | - Jeffrey S Moore
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States of America
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3
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Luo T, Ma Y, Cui X. Review on Frontal Polymerization Behavior for Thermosetting Resins: Materials, Modeling and Application. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:185. [PMID: 38256983 PMCID: PMC10818476 DOI: 10.3390/polym16020185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/05/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The traditional curing methods for thermosetting resins are energy-inefficient and environmentally unfriendly. Frontal polymerization (FP) is a self-sustaining process relying on the exothermic heat of polymerization. During FP, the external energy input (such as UV light input or heating) is only required at the initial stage to trigger a localized reaction front. FP is regarded as the rapid and energy-efficient manufacturing of polymers. The precise control of FP is essential for several manufacturing technologies, such as 3D printing, depending on the materials and the coupling of thermal transfer and polymerization. In this review, recent progress on the materials, modeling, and application of FP for thermosetting resins are presented. First, the effects of resin formulations and mixed fillers on FP behavior are discussed. Then, the basic mathematical model and reaction-thermal transfer model of FP are introduced. After that, recent developments in FP-based manufacturing applications are introduced in detail. Finally, this review outlines a roadmap for future research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xiaoyu Cui
- School of Aerospace Engineering and Applied Mechanics, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; (T.L.); (Y.M.)
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4
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Roch T, Lebihain M, Molinari JF. Dynamic Crack-Front Deformations in Cohesive Materials. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2023; 131:096101. [PMID: 37721851 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.131.096101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
Crack fronts deform due to heterogeneities, and inspecting these deformations can reveal local variations of material properties, and help predict out-of-plane damage. Current models neglect the influence of a finite dissipation length scale behind the crack tip, called the process zone size. The latter introduces scale effects in the deformation of the crack front, that are mitigated by the dynamics of the crack. We provide and numerically validate a theoretical framework for dynamic crack-front deformations in heterogeneous cohesive materials, a key step toward identifying the effective properties of a microstructure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thibault Roch
- Civil Engineering Institute, Materials Science and Engineering Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 18, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Mathias Lebihain
- Laboratoire Navier, CNRS (UMR 8205), École des Ponts ParisTech, Université Gustave Eiffel, 6-8 avenue Blaise Pascal, 77455 Marne-la-Vallée, France
| | - Jean-François Molinari
- Civil Engineering Institute, Materials Science and Engineering Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Station 18, CH-1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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5
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Groce B, Lane EE, Gary DP, Ngo DT, Ngo DT, Shaon F, Belgodere JA, Pojman JA. Kinetic and Chemical Effects of Clays and Other Fillers in the Preparation of Epoxy-Vinyl Ether Composites Using Radical-Induced Cationic Frontal Polymerization. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023; 15:19403-19413. [PMID: 37027250 PMCID: PMC10119861 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c00187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Addition of fillers to formulations can generate composites with improved mechanical properties and lower the overall cost through a reduction of chemicals needed. In this study, fillers were added to resin systems consisting of epoxies and vinyl ethers that frontally polymerized through a radical-induced cationic frontal polymerization (RICFP) mechanism. Different clays, along with inert fumed silica, were added to increase the viscosity and reduce the convection, results of which did not follow many trends present in free-radical frontal polymerization. The clays were found to reduce the front velocity of RICFP systems overall compared to systems with only fumed silica. It is hypothesized that chemical effects and water content produce this reduction when clays are added to the cationic system. Mechanical and thermal properties of composites were studied, along with filler dispersion in the cured material. Drying the clays in an oven increased the front velocity. Comparing thermally insulating wood flour to thermally conducting carbon fibers, we observed that the carbon fibers resulted in an increase in front velocity, while the wood flour reduced the front velocity. Finally, it was shown that acid-treated montmorillonite K10 polymerizes RICFP systems containing vinyl ether even in the absence of an initiator, resulting in a short pot life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brecklyn
R. Groce
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Emma E. Lane
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Daniel P. Gary
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Douglas T. Ngo
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Dylan T. Ngo
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Fahima Shaon
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Jorge A. Belgodere
- Department
of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Louisiana State University, Baton
Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - John A. Pojman
- Department
of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
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6
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Suslick BA, Hemmer J, Groce BR, Stawiasz KJ, Geubelle PH, Malucelli G, Mariani A, Moore JS, Pojman JA, Sottos NR. Frontal Polymerizations: From Chemical Perspectives to Macroscopic Properties and Applications. Chem Rev 2023; 123:3237-3298. [PMID: 36827528 PMCID: PMC10037337 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00686] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/26/2023]
Abstract
The synthesis and processing of most thermoplastics and thermoset polymeric materials rely on energy-inefficient and environmentally burdensome manufacturing methods. Frontal polymerization is an attractive, scalable alternative due to its exploitation of polymerization heat that is generally wasted and unutilized. The only external energy needed for frontal polymerization is an initial thermal (or photo) stimulus that locally ignites the reaction. The subsequent reaction exothermicity provides local heating; the transport of this thermal energy to neighboring monomers in either a liquid or gel-like state results in a self-perpetuating reaction zone that provides fully cured thermosets and thermoplastics. Propagation of this polymerization front continues through the unreacted monomer media until either all reactants are consumed or sufficient heat loss stalls further reaction. Several different polymerization mechanisms support frontal processes, including free-radical, cat- or anionic, amine-cure epoxides, and ring-opening metathesis polymerization. The choice of monomer, initiator/catalyst, and additives dictates how fast the polymer front traverses the reactant medium, as well as the maximum temperature achievable. Numerous applications of frontally generated materials exist, ranging from porous substrate reinforcement to fabrication of patterned composites. In this review, we examine in detail the physical and chemical phenomena that govern frontal polymerization, as well as outline the existing applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A Suslick
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Julie Hemmer
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Brecklyn R Groce
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 United States
| | - Katherine J Stawiasz
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Philippe H Geubelle
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Giulio Malucelli
- Department of Applied Science and Technology, Politecnico di Torino, 15121 Alessandria, Italy
| | - Alberto Mariani
- Department of Chemical, Physical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences, University of Sassari, 07100 Sassari, Italy
- National Interuniversity Consortium of Materials Science and Technology, 50121 Firenze, Italy
| | - Jeffrey S Moore
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - John A Pojman
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803 United States
| | - Nancy R Sottos
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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7
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Gao Y, Paul JE, Chen M, Hong L, Chamorro LP, Sottos NR, Geubelle PH. Buoyancy-Induced Convection Driven by Frontal Polymerization. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2023; 130:028101. [PMID: 36706389 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.130.028101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Revised: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
In this Letter, we study the interaction between a self-sustaining exothermic reaction front propagating in a direction perpendicular to that of gravity and the buoyancy-driven convective flow during frontal polymerization (FP) of a low-viscosity monomer resin. As the polymerization front transforms the liquid monomer into the solid polymer, the large thermal gradients associated with the propagating front sustain a natural convection of the fluid ahead of the front. The fluid convection in turn affects the reaction-diffusion (RD) dynamics and the shape of the front. Detailed multiphysics numerical analyses and particle image velocimetry experiments reveal this coupling between natural convection and frontal polymerization. The frontal Rayleigh (Ra) number affects the magnitude of the velocity field and the inclination of the front. A higher Ra number drives instability during FP, leading to the observation of thermal-chemical patterns with tunable wavelengths and magnitudes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Gao
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - J E Paul
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - M Chen
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - L Hong
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - L P Chamorro
- Department of Mechanical Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - N R Sottos
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Material Science and Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - P H Geubelle
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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8
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Park J, Kwak SY. Frontal polymerization-triggered simultaneous ring-opening metathesis polymerization and cross metathesis affords anisotropic macroporous dicyclopentadiene cellulose nanocrystal foam. Commun Chem 2022; 5:119. [PMID: 36697913 PMCID: PMC9814902 DOI: 10.1038/s42004-022-00740-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Multifunctionality and effectiveness of macroporous solid foams in extreme environments have captivated the attention of both academia and industries. The most recent rapid, energy-efficient strategy to manufacture solid foams with directionality is the frontal polymerization (FP) of dicyclopentadiene (DCPD). However, there still remains the need for a time efficient one-pot approach to induce anisotropic macroporosity in DCPD foams. Here we show a rapid production of cellular solids by frontally polymerizing a mixture of DCPD monomer and allyl-functionalized cellulose nanocrystals (ACs). Our results demonstrate a clear correlation between increasing % allylation and AC wt%, and the formed pore architectures. Especially, we show enhanced front velocity (vf) and reduced reaction initiation time (tinit) by introducing an optimal amount of 2 wt% AC. Conclusively, the small- and wide-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS, WAXS) analyses reveal that the incorporation of 2 wt% AC affects the crystal structure of FP-mediated DCPD/AC foams and enhances their oxidation resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinsu Park
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826 South Korea
| | - Seung-Yeop Kwak
- grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826 South Korea ,grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Research Institute of Advanced Materials (RIAM), Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826 South Korea ,grid.31501.360000 0004 0470 5905Institute of Engineering Research, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826 South Korea
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9
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Development of periodic colored bands via frontal polymerization. J INDIAN CHEM SOC 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jics.2022.100721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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10
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Huangfu F, Li W, Yang Z, You J, Yang P. Bulk ring-opening metathesis copolymerization of dicyclopentadiene and 5-ethylidene-2-norbornene: mixing rules, polymerization behaviors and properties. JOURNAL OF POLYMER RESEARCH 2022. [DOI: 10.1007/s10965-022-03268-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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11
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Suslick BA, Alzate-Sanchez DM, Moore JS. Scalable Frontal Oligomerization: Insights from Advanced Mass Analysis. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A. Suslick
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Diego M. Alzate-Sanchez
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jeffrey S. Moore
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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12
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Lessard JJ, Kaur P, Paul JE, Chang KM, Sottos NR, Moore JS. Switching Frontal Polymerization Mechanisms: FROMP and FRaP. ACS Macro Lett 2022; 11:1097-1101. [PMID: 35998375 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.2c00393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Two frontal polymerization (FP) mechanisms, frontal ring-opening metathesis polymerization (FROMP) of dicyclopentadiene and frontal radical polymerization (FRaP) of benzyl acrylate and hexanediol diacrylate, were combined for rapid manufacturing of welded thermoset materials. Leveraging the immiscibility of the two different FP resins, welded thermosets and gradient foams of varying composition were achieved by switching of FP mechanisms. The adhesion strength of the welded thermoset materials differed depending on the originating mechanism. Finally, welded thermoset foams of varying porosity and homogeneity were generated through initiation from the bottom of the two resins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob J Lessard
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Parmeet Kaur
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Justine E Paul
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Kelly M Chang
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Nancy R Sottos
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jeffrey S Moore
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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13
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Suslick BA, Yazdani AN, Cencer MM, Paul JE, Parikh NA, Stawiasz KJ, Qamar IPS, Sottos NR, Moore JS. Storable, Dual-Component Systems for Frontal Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00775] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin A. Suslick
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Aliza N. Yazdani
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Morgan M. Cencer
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Justine E. Paul
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Nil A. Parikh
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Katherine J. Stawiasz
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Isabel P. S. Qamar
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Nancy R. Sottos
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jeffrey S. Moore
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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14
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Stawiasz KJ, Wendell CI, Suslick BA, Moore JS. Photoredox-Initiated Frontal Ring-Opening Metathesis Polymerization. ACS Macro Lett 2022; 11:780-784. [PMID: 35638608 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.2c00248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Herein, we report the development of a photoredox-initiated frontal ring-opening metathesis polymerization (FROMP) chemical system. We found that a ruthenium-based, bis-N-heterocyclic carbene metathesis precatalyst was activated with 9-mesityl-10-phenylacridindium tetrafluoroborate, copper(II) triflate, and a 455 nm light source. This chemistry was used to initiate the FROMP of dicyclopentadiene; once initiated, the heat released from the polymerization sustained a well-controlled reaction front. Variation in copper or metathesis precatalyst loading yielded front speeds ranging from 0.15 to 0.43 mm s-1 and front temperatures ranging from 140 to 205 °C. While the glass transition temperatures of the resultant polymers are lower than those derived with Grubbs' second-generation catalyst, this chemical system provides extended pot life.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine J. Stawiasz
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Chloe I. Wendell
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Benjamin A. Suslick
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jeffrey S. Moore
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois at Urbana−Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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15
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Tiani R, Pojman JA, Rongy L. Critical Role of Layer Thickness in Frontal Polymerization. J Phys Chem B 2022; 126:3607-3618. [PMID: 35532886 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.2c01252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Thermal frontal polymerization (FP) is a chemical process during which a cold monomer-initiator mixture is converted into a hot polymer as a polymerization front propagates in the system due to the interplay between heat diffusion and the exothermicity of the reaction. The theoretical description of FP generally focuses on one-dimensional (1D) reaction-diffusion (RD) models where the effect of heat losses is encoded into an effective parameter in the heat equation. We show here the limits of such 1D models to describe FP under nonadiabatic conditions. To do so, the propagation of a polymerization front is analyzed both analytically and numerically in a rectangular two-dimensional (2D) layer. The layer thickness is shown to control the dynamics of the front and to determine its very existence. We find that for given heat losses, a minimum thickness is required for front propagation as recently observed in FP experiments of 2D thin films on wood. Moreover, when the thickness exceeds a critical value, the front is observed to survive independently of the rate of heat losses. This result cannot be predicted with 1D models where front extinction is always possible. A scaling analysis is proposed to highlight the physical interpretation of such a front survival. The influence of dimensionality on thermal instabilities is also analyzed, with a focus on the differences with the 1D predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reda Tiani
- Nonlinear Physical Chemistry Unit, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Faculté des Sciences, CP231, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - John A Pojman
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Laurence Rongy
- Nonlinear Physical Chemistry Unit, Université libre de Bruxelles (ULB), Faculté des Sciences, CP231, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
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16
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Rapp PB, Silverman BR. Viscoelastic Phase Patterning in Artificial Protein Hydrogels. Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c00094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peter B. Rapp
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
| | - Bradley R. Silverman
- Division of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California 91125, United States
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17
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Verker R, Wallach ER, Vidavsky Y, Bolker A, Gouzman I. Novel axial dynamic mechanical analysis setup for thermo-analytical study and curing kinetics optimization of thermoset adhesives. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2022; 93:034104. [PMID: 35364994 DOI: 10.1063/5.0079002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2021] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Thermo-analytical studies of thermoset adhesives, either during research and development or in quality assurance activities, involve the application of various analytical equipment for adhesive characterization, from initial mixing to final product decomposition. Gelation is usually measured with rheometers or dynamic mechanical analyzers (DMAs); curing, post-curing, and curing kinetics are often studied using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Glass transition temperature (Tg) is measured via DSC or DMA, and finally, thermal decomposition measurements are done using thermal gravimetric analysis. Here, we present a new curing kinetics optimization module (C-KOM), an extension to an axial DMA, and a protocol for its usage, which combines elements from all of the above thermo-analytical techniques into one tool. As a case study, we apply C-KOM to investigate the effect of the curing temperature on the physical properties of an epoxy adhesive including gelation and end of cure points as well as its Tg. The data collected via C-KOM were used to extract the adhesive's curing reaction rates and its activation energy. Our research allowed us to compare and evaluate previously suggested curing procedures and assess their validity. As a final step, the thermal decomposition temperature of the epoxy adhesive was also identified via C-KOM. The newly suggested C-KOM setup provides a fast path toward characterization and optimization of the curing processes of thermoset materials in a way that was not available before.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Verker
- Space Environment Department, Soreq NRC, Yavne 81800, Israel
| | - E R Wallach
- Space Environment Department, Soreq NRC, Yavne 81800, Israel
| | - Y Vidavsky
- Space Environment Department, Soreq NRC, Yavne 81800, Israel
| | - A Bolker
- Space Environment Department, Soreq NRC, Yavne 81800, Israel
| | - I Gouzman
- Space Environment Department, Soreq NRC, Yavne 81800, Israel
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18
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Gary DP, Ngo D, Bui A, Pojman JA. Charge transfer complexes as dual thermal/photo initiators for
free‐radical
frontal polymerization. JOURNAL OF POLYMER SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/pol.20210913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel P. Gary
- Department of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group Louisiana State University Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
| | - Douglas Ngo
- Department of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group Louisiana State University Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
| | - Amber Bui
- Department of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group Louisiana State University Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
| | - John A. Pojman
- Department of Chemistry and the Macromolecular Studies Group Louisiana State University Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Chen
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Materials Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, and Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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20
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Gao Y, Li S, Kim JY, Hoffman I, Vyas SK, Pojman JA, Geubelle PH. Anisotropic frontal polymerization in a model resin-copper composite. CHAOS (WOODBURY, N.Y.) 2022; 32:013109. [PMID: 35105137 DOI: 10.1063/5.0077552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This work investigates experimentally and numerically frontal polymerization in a thermally anisotropic system with parallel copper strips embedded in 1,6-hexanediol diacrylate resin. Both experiments and multiphysics finite element analyses reveal that the front propagation in the thermally anisotropic system is orientation-dependent, leading to variations in the front shape and the front velocity due to the different front-metal strip interaction mechanisms along and across the metal strips. The parameters entering the cure kinetics model used in this work are chosen to capture the key characteristics of the polymerization front, i.e., the front temperature and velocity. Numerical parametric analyses demonstrate that the front velocity in the directions parallel and perpendicular to the metal strips increases as the system size decreases and approaches the analytical prediction for homogenized systems. A two-dimensional homogenized model for anisotropic frontal polymerization in the metal-resin system is proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Gao
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Sarah Li
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA
| | - Jin-Young Kim
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - Imogen Hoffman
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA
| | - Sagar K Vyas
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
| | - John A Pojman
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, USA
| | - Philippe H Geubelle
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, USA
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21
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Gao Y, Dearborn MA, Hemmer J, Wang Z, Esser-Kahn AP, Geubelle PH. Controllable Frontal Polymerization and Spontaneous Patterning Enabled by Phase-Changing Particles. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2021; 17:e2102217. [PMID: 34528371 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202102217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Revised: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Frontal polymerization provides a rapid, economic, and environmentally friendly methodology to manufacture thermoset polymers and composites. Despite its efficiency and reduced environmental impact, the manufacturing method is underutilized due to the limited fundamental understanding of its dynamic control. This work reports the control and patterning of the front propagation in a dicyclopentadiene resin by immersion of phase-changing polycaprolactone particles. Predictive and designed patterning is enabled by multiphysical numerical analyses, which reveal that the interplay between endothermic phase transition, exothermic chemical reaction, and heat exchange govern the temperature, velocity, and propagation path of the front via two different interaction regimes. To pattern the front, one can vary the size and spacing between the particles and increase the number of propagating fronts, resulting in tunable physical patterns formed due to front separation and merging near the particles. Both single- and double-frontal polymerization experiments in an open mold are performed. The results confirm the front-particle interaction mechanisms and the shapes of the patterns explored numerically. The present study offers a fundamental understanding of frontal polymerization in the presence of heat-absorbing second-phase materials and proposes a potential one-step manufacturing method for precisely patterned polymeric and composite materials without masks, molds, or printers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Gao
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Mason A Dearborn
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Julie Hemmer
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
| | - Zhao Wang
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Aaron P Esser-Kahn
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, 60637, USA
| | - Philippe H Geubelle
- Beckman Institute for Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
- Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, 61801, USA
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22
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LaNasa JA, Neuman A, Riggleman RA, Hickey RJ. Investigating Nanoparticle Organization in Polymer Matrices during Reaction-Induced Phase Transitions and Material Processing. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2021; 13:42104-42113. [PMID: 34432429 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.1c14830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Controlling nanoparticle organization in polymer matrices has been and is still a long-standing issue and directly impacts the performance of the materials. In the majority of instances, simply mixing nanoparticles and polymers leads to macroscale aggregation, resulting in deleterious effects. An alternative method to physically blending independent components such as nanoparticle and polymers is to conduct polymerizations in one-phase monomer/nanoparticle mixtures. Here, we report on the mechanism of nanoparticle aggregation in hybrid materials in which gold nanoparticles are initially homogeneously dispersed in a monomer mixture and then undergo a two-step aggregation process during polymerization and material processing. Specifically, oleylamine-functionalized gold nanoparticles (AuNP) are first synthesized in a methyl methacrylate (MMA) solution and then subsequently polymerized by using a free radical polymerization initiated with azobis(isobutyronitrile) (AIBN) to create hybrid AuNP and poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) materials. The resulting products are easily pressed to obtain bulk films with nanoparticle organization defined as either well-dispersed or aggregated. Polymerizations are performed at various temperatures (T) and MMA volume fractions (ΦMMA) to systematically influence the final nanoparticle dispersion state. During the polymerization of MMA and subsequent material processing, the initially homogeneous AuNP/MMA mixture undergoes macrophase separation between PMMA and oleylamine during the polymerization, yet the AuNP are dispersed in the oleylamine phase. The nanoparticles then aggregate within the oleylamine phase when the materials are processed via vacuum drying and pressing. Nanoparticle organization is tracked throughout the polymerization and processing steps by using a combination of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS). The resulting dispersion state of AuNPs in PMMA bulk films is ultimately dictated by the thermodynamics of mixing between the PMMA and oleylamine phases, but the mechanism of nanoparticle aggregation occurs in two steps that correspond to the polymerization and processing of the materials. Flory-Huggins mixing theory is used to support the PMMA and oleylamine phase separation. The reported results highlight how the integration of nonequilibrium processing and mean-field approximations reveal nanoparticle aggregation in hybrid materials synthesized by using reaction-induced phase transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anastasia Neuman
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Robert A Riggleman
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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23
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Gao Y, Dearborn MA, Vyas S, Kumar A, Hemmer J, Wang Z, Wu Q, Alshangiti O, Moore JS, Esser-Kahn AP, Geubelle PH. Manipulating Frontal Polymerization and Instabilities with Phase-Changing Microparticles. J Phys Chem B 2021; 125:7537-7545. [PMID: 34228929 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.1c03899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Recently presented as a rapid and eco-friendly manufacturing method for thermoset polymers and composites, frontal polymerization (FP) experiences thermo-chemical instabilities under certain conditions, leading to visible patterns and spatially dependent material properties. Through numerical analyses and experiments, we demonstrate how the front velocity, temperature, and instability in the frontal polymerization of cyclooctadiene are affected by the presence of poly(caprolactone) microparticles homogeneously mixed with the resin. The phase transformation associated with the melting of the microparticles absorbs some of the exothermic reaction energy generated by the FP, reduces the amplitude and order of the thermal instabilities, and suppresses the front velocity and temperatures. Experimental measurements validate predictions of the dependence of the front velocity and temperature on the microparticle volume fraction provided by the proposed homogenized reaction-diffusion model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Gao
- Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Mason A Dearborn
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Sagar Vyas
- Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Aditya Kumar
- Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Julie Hemmer
- Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Zhao Wang
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Qiong Wu
- Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Omar Alshangiti
- Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Jeffrey S Moore
- Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Chemistry, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Aaron P Esser-Kahn
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States
| | - Philippe H Geubelle
- Beckman Institute of Advanced Science and Technology, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States.,Department of Aerospace Engineering, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
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24
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Pojman JA. A New Approach to Manufacturing with Frontal Polymerization to Generate Patterned Materials. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2021; 7:534-535. [PMID: 34056084 PMCID: PMC8155457 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.1c00341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
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