Resolving the Role of Lipoxygenases in the Initiation and Execution of Ferroptosis

Silencing of CircTRIM25/miR-138-5p/CREB1 axis promotes chondrogenesis in osteoarthritis

BACKGROUND

Dysregulated circular RNAs (circRNAs) are involved in osteoarthritis (OA) progression.

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to explore the effect of hsa_circ_0044719 (circTRIM25) on the ferroptosis of chondrocytes.

METHODS

Chondrocytes were treated with interleukin (IL)-1β to generate cell model. Cellular behaviours were measured using cell counting kit-8, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, relevant kits, propidium iodide staining, and immunofluorescence assay. Quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction was performed to examine the expression of circTRIM25, miR-138-5p, and cAMP responsive element binding protein 1 (CREB1), and their interactions were assessed using luciferase reporter analysis and RNA pull-down assay.

RESULTS

CircTRIM25 was upregulated in OA tissues and IL-1β-stimulated chondrocytes. Knockdown of circTRIM25 facilitated the viability and suppressed ferroptosis and inflammation of IL-1β-induced cells. CircTRIM25 served as a sponge of miR-138-5p, which directly targets CREB1. Downregulation of miR-138-5p abrogated the effect induced by knockdown of circTRIM25. Furthermore, enforced CREB1 reversed the miR-138-5p induced effect. Moreover, knockdown of circTRIM25 attenuated cartilage injury in vivo.

CONCLUSION

Silencing of circTRIM25 inhibited ferroptosis of chondrocytes via the miR-138-5p/CREB axis and thus attenuated OA progression.

Ferroptosis mechanism and Alzheimer's disease

Regulated cell death is a genetically determined form of programmed cell death that commonly occurs during the development of living organisms. This process plays a crucial role in modulating homeostasis and is evolutionarily conserved across a diverse range of living organisms. Ferroptosis is a classic regulatory mode of cell death. Extensive studies of regulatory cell death in Alzheimer's disease have yielded increasing evidence that ferroptosis is closely related to the occurrence, development, and prognosis of Alzheimer's disease. This review summarizes the molecular mechanisms of ferroptosis and recent research advances in the role of ferroptosis in Alzheimer's disease. Our findings are expected to serve as a theoretical and experimental foundation for clinical research and targeted therapy for Alzheimer's disease.

A review on comprehending immunotherapeutic approaches inducing ferroptosis: Managing tumour immunity

Ferroptosis, a necrotic, iron-dependent controlled cell death mechanism, is distinguished by the development of lipid peroxides to fatal proportions. Malignant tumours, influenced by iron to promote fast development, are vulnerable to ferroptosis. Based upon mounting evidence it has been observed that ferroptosis may be immunogenic and hence may complement immunotherapies. A new approach includes iron oxide-loaded nano-vaccines (IONVs), having supremacy for the traits of the tumour microenvironment (TME) to deliver specific antigens through improving the immunostimulatory capacity by molecular disintegration and reversible covalent bonds that target the tumour cells and induce ferroptosis. Apart from IONVs, another newer approach to induce ferroptosis in tumour cells is through oncolytic virus (OVs). One such oncolytic virus is the Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV), which can only multiply in cancer cells through the p53-SLC7A11-GPX4 pathway that leads to elevated levels of lipid peroxide and intracellular reactive oxygen species leading to the induction of ferroptosis that induce ferritinophagy.

The differential impact of iron on ferroptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammatory reaction in head-kidney macrophages of yellow catfish (Pelteobagrus fulvidraco) with and without ammonia stress

Ammonia toxicity in fish is closely related to ferroptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammatory responses. Iron is an essential trace element that plays a key role in many biological processes for cells and organisms, including ferroptosis, oxidative stress response, and inflammation. This study aimed to investigate the effect of iron on indicators of fish exposed to ammonia, specifically on the three aspects mentioned above. The head kidney macrophages of yellow catfish were randomly assigned to one of four groups: CON (normal control), AM (0.046 mg L-1 total ammonia nitrogen), Fe (20 μg mL-1 FeSO4), and Fe + AM (20 μg mL-1 FeSO4, 0.046 mg L-1 total ammonia nitrogen). The cells were pretreated with FeSO4 for 6 h followed by ammonia for 24 h. The study found that iron supplementation led to an excessive accumulation of iron and ROS in macrophages, but it did not strongly induce ferroptosis, oxidative stress, or inflammatory responses. This was supported by a decrease in T-AOC, and the downregulation of SOD, as well as an increase in GSH levels and the upregulation of TFR1, CAT and Nrf2. Furthermore, the mRNA expression of HIF-1, p53 and the anti-inflammatory M2 macrophage marker Arg-1 were upregulated. The results also showed that iron supplementation increased the progression of some macrophages from early apoptosis to late apoptotic cells. However, the combined treatment of iron and ammonia resulted in a stronger intracellular ferroptosis, oxidative stress, and inflammatory reaction compared to either treatment alone. Additionally, there was a noticeable increase in necrotic cells in the Fe + AM and AM groups. These findings indicate that the biological functions of iron in macrophages of fish may vary inconsistently in the presence or absence of ammonia stress.

New aspects of redox signaling mediated by supersulfides in health and disease

Oxygen molecules accept electrons from the respiratory chain in the mitochondria and are responsible for energy production in aerobic organisms. The reactive oxygen species formed via these oxygen reduction processes undergo complicated electron transfer reactions with other biological substances, which leads to alterations in their physiological functions and cause diverse biological and pathophysiological consequences (e.g., oxidative stress). Oxygen accounts for only a small proportion of the redox reactions in organisms, especially under aerobic or hypoxic conditions but not under anaerobic and hypoxic conditions. This article discusses a completely new concept of redox biology, which is governed by redox-active supersulfides, i.e., sulfur-catenated molecular species. These species are present in abundance in all organisms but remain largely unexplored in terms of redox biology and life science research. In fact, accumulating evidence shows that supersulfides have extensive redox chemical properties and that they can be readily ionized or radicalized to participate in energy metabolism, redox signaling, and oxidative stress responses in cells and in vivo. Thus, pharmacological intervention and medicinal modulation of supersulfide activities have been shown to benefit the regulation of disease pathogenesis as well as disease control.

Molecular and therapeutic landscape of ferroptosis in skin diseases

ABSTRACT

Regulated cell death (RCD) is a critical physiological process essential in maintaining skin homeostasis. Among the various forms of RCD, ferroptosis stands out due to its distinct features of iron accumulation, lipid peroxidation, and involvement of various inhibitory antioxidant systems. In recent years, an expanding body of research has solidly linked ferroptosis to the emergence of skin disorders. Therefore, understanding the mechanisms underlying ferroptosis in skin diseases is crucial for advancing therapy and prevention strategies. This review commences with a succinct elucidation of the mechanisms that underpin ferroptosis, embarks on a thorough exploration of ferroptosis's role across a spectrum of skin conditions, encompassing melanoma, psoriasis, systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), vitiligo, and dermatological ailments precipitated by ultraviolet (UV) exposure, and scrutinizes the potential therapeutic benefits of pharmacological interventions aimed at modulating ferroptosis for the amelioration of skin diseases.

Ferroptosis in cancer (Review)

Ferroptosis is a type of programmed cell death depending on iron and reactive oxygen species. This unique cell death process has attracted a great deal of attention in the field of cancer research over the past decade. Research on the association of ferroptosis signal pathways and cancer development indicated that targeting ferroptosis has great potential for cancer therapy. In the present study, the latest research progress of ferroptosis was reviewed, focusing on the relationship between ferroptosis and the development of cancer, in order to further promote the clinical application of ferroptosis in cancer.

A guide to ferroptosis, the biological rust of cellular membranes

Unprotected iron can rust due to oxygen exposure. Similarly, in our body, oxidative stress can kill cells in an iron-dependent manner, which can give rise to devastating diseases. This type of cell death is referred to as ferroptosis. Generally, ferroptosis is defined as an iron-catalyzed form of regulated necrosis that occurs through excessive peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids within cellular membranes. This review summarizes how ferroptosis is executed by a rather primitive biochemical process, under tight regulation of lipid, iron, and redox metabolic processes. An overview is given of major classes of ferroptosis inducers and inhibitors, and how to detect ferroptosis. Finally, its detrimental role in disease is briefly discussed.

Recent advances in potential therapeutic targets of ferroptosis‑associated pathways for the treatment of stroke (Review)

Stroke is a severe neurological disease that is associated with high rates of morbidity and mortality, and the underlying pathological processes are complex. Ferroptosis fulfills a significant role in the progression and treatment of stroke. It is well established that ferroptosis is a type of programmed cell death that is distinct from other forms or types of cell death. The process of ferroptosis involves multiple signaling pathways and regulatory mechanisms that interact with mechanisms inherent to stroke development. Inducers and inhibitors of ferroptosis have been shown to exert a role in the onset of this cell death process. Furthermore, it has been shown that interfering with ferroptosis affects the occurrence of stroke, indicating that targeting ferroptosis may offer a promising therapeutic approach for treating patients of stroke. Hence, the present review aimed to summarize the latest progress that has been made in terms of using therapeutic interventions for ferroptosis as treatment targets in cases of stroke. It provides an overview of the relevant pathways and molecular mechanisms that have been investigated in recent years, highlighting the roles of inducers and inhibitors of ferroptosis in stroke. Additionally, the intervention potential of various types of Traditional Chinese Medicine is also summarized. In conclusion, the present review provides a comprehensive overview of the potential therapeutic targets afforded by ferroptosis‑associated pathways in stroke, offering new insights into how ferroptosis may be exploited in the treatment of stroke.

ARID3A enhances chemoresistance of pancreatic cancer via inhibiting PTEN-induced ferroptosis

Currently, chemotherapy remains occupying a pivotal place in the treatment of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC). Nonetheless, the emergence of drug resistance in recent years has limited the clinical efficacy of chemotherapeutic agents, especially gemcitabine (GEM). Through bioinformatics analysis, AT-rich Interactive Domain-containing Protein 3A (ARID3A), one of transcription factors, is discovered to possibly participate in this progress. This study thoroughly investigates the potential role of ARID3A in the malignant progression and GEM chemoresistance of PDAC and explores the underlying mechanisms. The results indicate that ARID3A knockdown suppresses tumor development and enhances the sensitivity of PDAC cells to GEM in vitro and vivo. Mechanically, CUT&Tag profiling sequencing, RNA-sequencing and functional studies demonstrates that decreased ARID3A expression alleviates the transcriptional inhibition of phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN), consequently leading to glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) depletion and increased lipid peroxidation levels. Activated ferroptosis induced by the inhibition of GPX4 subsequently restricts tumor progression and reduces GEM resistance in PDAC. This research identifies the ferroptosis regulatory pathway of ARID3A-PTEN-GPX4 axis and reveals its critical role in driving the progression and chemoresistance of pancreatic cancer. Notably, both inhibition of ARID3A and enhancement of ferroptosis can increase chemosensitivity to GEM, which offers a promising opportunity for developing therapeutic strategies to combat acquired chemotherapy resistance in pancreatic cancer.

Driving factors of neuronal ferroptosis

Ferroptosis is an oxidative form of iron-dependent cell death characterized by the accumulation of lipid peroxides on membranes. Iron and lipids containing polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential for this process. Ferroptosis is central to several neurological diseases and underlies the importance of balanced iron and polyunsaturated fatty acid metabolism in the brain, particularly in neurons. Here, we reflect on the potential links between neuronal physiology and the accumulation of iron and peroxidated lipids, the mechanisms neurons use to protect themselves from ferroptosis, and the relationship between pathogenic protein deposition and ferroptosis in neurodegenerative disease. We propose that the unique physiology of neurons makes them especially vulnerable to ferroptosis.

PAFAH2 suppresses synchronized ferroptosis to ameliorate acute kidney injury

Synchronized ferroptosis contributes to nephron loss in acute kidney injury (AKI). However, the propagation signals and the underlying mechanisms of the synchronized ferroptosis for renal tubular injury remain unresolved. Here we report that platelet-activating factor (PAF) and PAF-like phospholipids (PAF-LPLs) mediated synchronized ferroptosis and contributed to AKI. The emergence of PAF and PAF-LPLs in ferroptosis caused the instability of biomembranes and signaled the cell death of neighboring cells. This cascade could be suppressed by PAF-acetylhydrolase (II) (PAFAH2) or by addition of antibodies against PAF. Genetic knockout or pharmacological inhibition of PAFAH2 increased PAF production, augmented synchronized ferroptosis and exacerbated ischemia/reperfusion (I/R)-induced AKI. Notably, intravenous administration of wild-type PAFAH2 protein, but not its enzymatically inactive mutants, prevented synchronized tubular cell death, nephron loss and AKI. Our findings offer an insight into the mechanisms of synchronized ferroptosis and suggest a possibility for the preventive intervention of AKI.

A machine learning and drug repurposing approach to target ferroptosis in colorectal cancer stratified by sex and KRAS

The landscape of sex differences in Colorectal Cancer (CRC) has not been well characterized with respect to the mechanisms of action for oncogenes such as KRAS. However, our recent study showed that tumors from male patients with KRAS mutations have decreased iron-dependent cell death called ferroptosis. Building on these findings, we further examined ferroptosis in CRC, considering both sex of the patient and KRAS mutations, using public databases and our in-house CRC tumor cohort. Through subsampling inference and variable importance analysis (VIMP), we identified significant differences in gene expression between KRAS mutant and wild type tumors from male patients. These genes suppress (e.g., SLC7A11 ) or drive (e.g., SLC1A5 ) ferroptosis, and these findings were further validated with Gaussian mixed models. Furthermore, we explored the prognostic value of ferroptosis regulating genes and discovered sex- and KRAS-specific differences at both the transcriptional and metabolic levels by random survival forest with backward elimination algorithm (RSF-BE). Of note, genes and metabolites involved in arginine synthesis and glutathione metabolism were uniquely associated with prognosis in tumors from males with KRAS mutations. Additionally, drug repurposing is becoming popular due to the high costs, attrition rates, and slow pace of new drug development, offering a way to treat common and rare diseases more efficiently. Furthermore, increasing evidence has shown that ferroptosis inhibition or induction can improve drug sensitivity or overcome chemotherapy drug resistance. Therefore, we investigated the correlation between gene expression, metabolite levels, and drug sensitivity across all CRC primary tumor cell lines using data from the Genomics of Drug Sensitivity in Cancer (GDSC) resource. We observed that ferroptosis suppressor genes such as DHODH , GCH1 , and AIFM2 in KRAS mutant CRC cell lines were resistant to cisplatin and paclitaxel, underscoring why these drugs are not effective for these patients. The comprehensive map generated here provides valuable biological insights for future investigations, and the findings are supported by rigorous analysis of large-scale publicly available data and our in-house cohort. The study also emphasizes the potential application of VIMP, Gaussian mixed models, and RSF-BE models in the multi-omics research community. In conclusion, this comprehensive approach opens doors for leveraging precision molecular feature analysis and drug repurposing possibilities in KRAS mutant CRC.

A Streptococcus pneumoniae endolysin mutant protein ΔA146Ply elicits rapid broad-spectrum mucosal protection in mice via upregulation of GPX4 through TLR4/IRG1/NRF2 to alleviate macrophage ferroptosis

Innovative solutions for rapid protection against broad-spectrum infections are very important in dealing with complex infection environments. We utilized a functionally inactive mutated endolysin protein of Streptococcus pneumoniae (ΔA146Ply) to immunize mice against pneumonic infections by multidrug-resistant bacteria, Candida albicans and influenza virus type A. ΔA146Ply protection relied on both immunized tissue-resident and monocyte-derived alveolar macrophages and inhibited infection induced ferroptosis that upregulated expression of GPX4 (glutathione peroxidase) in alveolar macrophages. Ferroptosis resistance endowed macrophages with enhanced phagocytosis by inhibiting lipid peroxidation during infection. Moreover, we demonstrated ΔA146Ply upregulated GPX4 through the TLR4/IRG1/NRF2 pathway. ΔA146Ply also induced ferroptosis inhibition and phagocytosis improvement in human monocytes. This mode of action is a novel and potentially prophylactic and rapid broad-spectrum anti-infection mechanism. Our study provides new insights into protective interventions that act by regulating ferroptosis to improve multiple pathogen resistance via GPX4 targeting.

Iron(III)-salophene catalyzes redox cycles that induce phospholipid peroxidation and deplete cancer cells of ferroptosis-protecting cofactors

Ferroptosis, a lipid peroxidation-driven cell death program kept in check by glutathione peroxidase 4 and endogenous redox cycles, promises access to novel strategies for treating therapy-resistant cancers. Chlorido [N,N'-disalicylidene-1,2-phenylenediamine]iron (III) complexes (SCs) have potent anti-cancer properties by inducing ferroptosis, apoptosis, or necroptosis through still poorly understood molecular mechanisms. Here, we show that SCs preferentially induce ferroptosis over other cell death programs in triple-negative breast cancer cells (LC50 ≥ 0.07 μM) and are particularly effective against cell lines with acquired invasiveness, chemo- or radioresistance. Redox lipidomics reveals that initiation of cell death is associated with extensive (hydroper)oxidation of arachidonic acid and adrenic acid in membrane phospholipids, specifically phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylinositols, with SCs outperforming established ferroptosis inducers. Mechanistically, SCs effectively catalyze one-electron transfer reactions, likely via a redox cycle involving the reduction of Fe(III) to Fe(II) species and reversible formation of oxo-bridged dimeric complexes, as supported by cyclic voltammetry. As a result, SCs can use hydrogen peroxide to generate organic radicals but not hydroxyl radicals and oxidize membrane phospholipids and (membrane-)protective factors such as NADPH, which is depleted from cells. We conclude that SCs catalyze specific redox reactions that drive membrane peroxidation while interfering with the ability of cells, including therapy-resistant cancer cells, to detoxify phospholipid hydroperoxides.

Ironing out the Links: Ferroptosis in epilepsy and SUDEP

Iron is a crucial element for almost all organisms because it plays a vital role in oxygen transport, enzymatic processes, and energy generation due to its electron transfer capabilities. However, its dysregulation can lead to a form of programmed cell death known as ferroptosis, which is characterized by cellular iron accumulation, reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, and unrestricted lipid peroxidation. Both iron and ferroptosis have been identified as key players in the pathogenesis of various neurodegenerative diseases. While in epilepsy this phenomenon remains relatively understudied, seizures can be considered hypoxic-ischemic episodes resulting in increased ROS production, lipid peroxidation, membrane disorganization, and cell death. All of this is accompanied by elevated intracellular free Fe2+ concentration and hemosiderin precipitation, as existing reports suggest a significant accumulation of iron in the brain and heart associated with epilepsy. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures (GTCS), a primary risk factor for Sudden Unexpected Death in Epilepsy (SUDEP), not only have an impact on the brain but also lead to cardiogenic dysfunctions associated with "Iron Overload and Cardiomyopathy" (IOC) and "Epileptic heart" characterized by electrical and mechanical dysfunction and a high risk of malignant bradycardia. In line with this phenomenon, studies conducted by our research group have demonstrated that recurrent seizures induce hypoxia in cardiomyocytes, resulting in P-glycoprotein (P-gp) overexpression, prolonged Q-T interval, severe bradycardia, and hemosiderin precipitation, correlating with an elevated spontaneous death ratio. In this article, we explore the intricate connections among ferroptosis, epilepsy, and SUDEP. By synthesizing current knowledge and drawing insights from recent publications, this study provides a comprehensive understanding of the molecular underpinnings. Furthermore, this review offers insights into potential therapeutic avenues and outlines future research directions.

Ferroptosis in thyroid cancer: Potential mechanisms, effective therapeutic targets and predictive biomarker

Thyroid cancer is a prevalent endocrine malignancy whose global incidence has risen over the past several decades. Ferroptosis, a regulated form of cell death distinguished by the excessive buildup of iron-dependent lipid peroxidates, stands out from other programmed cell death pathways in terms of morphological and molecular characteristics. Increasing evidence suggests a close association between thyroid cancer and ferroptosis, that is, inducing ferroptosis effectively suppresses the proliferation of thyroid cancer cells and impede tumor advancement. Therefore, ferroptosis represents a promising therapeutic target for the clinical management of thyroid cancer in clinical settings. Alterations in ferroptosis-related genes hold potential for prognostic prediction in thyroid cancer. This review summarizes current studies on the role of ferroptosis in thyroid cancer, elucidating its mechanisms, therapeutic targets, and predictive biomarkers. The findings underscore the significance of ferroptosis in thyroid cancer and offer valuable insights into the development of innovative treatment strategies and accurate predictors for the thyroid cancer.

Exploiting ferroptosis vulnerabilities in cancer

Ferroptosis is a distinct lipid peroxidation-dependent form of necrotic cell death. This process has been increasingly contemplated as a new target for cancer therapy because of an intrinsic or acquired ferroptosis vulnerability in difficult-to-treat cancers and tumour microenvironments. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of the molecular mechanisms that underlie ferroptosis and highlight available tools for the modulation of ferroptosis sensitivity in cancer cells and communication with immune cells within the tumour microenvironment. We further discuss how these new insights into ferroptosis-activating pathways can become new armouries in the fight against cancer.

ALOX15B controls macrophage cholesterol homeostasis via lipid peroxidation, ERK1/2 and SREBP2

Macrophage cholesterol homeostasis is crucial for health and disease and has been linked to the lipid-peroxidizing enzyme arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase type B (ALOX15B), albeit molecular mechanisms remain obscure. We performed global transcriptome and immunofluorescence analysis in ALOX15B-silenced primary human macrophages and observed a reduction of nuclear sterol regulatory element-binding protein (SREBP) 2, the master transcription factor of cellular cholesterol biosynthesis. Consequently, SREBP2-target gene expression was reduced as were the sterol biosynthetic intermediates desmosterol and lathosterol as well as 25- and 27-hydroxycholesterol. Mechanistically, suppression of ALOX15B reduced lipid peroxidation in primary human macrophages and thereby attenuated activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase ERK1/2, which lowered SREBP2 abundance and activity. Low nuclear SREBP2 rendered both, ALOX15B-silenced and ERK1/2-inhibited macrophages refractory to SREBP2 activation upon blocking the NPC intracellular cholesterol transporter 1. These studies suggest a regulatory mechanism controlling macrophage cholesterol homeostasis based on ALOX15B-mediated lipid peroxidation and concomitant ERK1/2 activation.

The cell biology of ferroptosis

Ferroptosis is a non-apoptotic cell death mechanism characterized by iron-dependent membrane lipid peroxidation. Here, we review what is known about the cellular mechanisms mediating the execution and regulation of ferroptosis. We first consider how the accumulation of membrane lipid peroxides leads to the execution of ferroptosis by altering ion transport across the plasma membrane. We then discuss how metabolites and enzymes that are distributed in different compartments and organelles throughout the cell can regulate sensitivity to ferroptosis by impinging upon iron, lipid and redox metabolism. Indeed, metabolic pathways that reside in the mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, lipid droplets, peroxisomes and other organelles all contribute to the regulation of ferroptosis sensitivity. We note how the regulation of ferroptosis sensitivity by these different organelles and pathways seems to vary between different cells and death-inducing conditions. We also highlight transcriptional master regulators that integrate the functions of different pathways and organelles to modulate ferroptosis sensitivity globally. Throughout this Review, we highlight open questions and areas in which progress is needed to better understand the cell biology of ferroptosis.

Kaempferitrin attenuates unilateral ureteral obstruction-induced renal inflammation and fibrosis in mice by inhibiting NOX4-mediated tubular ferroptosis

Tubular ferroptosis significantly contributes to renal inflammation and fibrosis, critical factors in chronic kidney disease (CKD). This study aims to investigate Kaempferitrin, a potent flavonoid glycoside from Bauhinia forficata leaves, renowned for its anti-inflammatory and antitumor effects, and to elucidate its potential mechanisms in mitigating inflammation and fibrosis induced by tubular ferroptosis. The study investigated Kaempferitrin's impact on tubular ferroptosis using a unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) model-induced renal inflammation and fibrosis. In vitro, erastin-induced ferroptosis in primary tubular epithelial cells (TECs) was utilized to further explore Kaempferitrin's effects. Additionally, NADPH oxidase 4 (NOX4) transfection in TECs and cellular thermal shift assay (CETSA) were conducted to identify Kaempferitrin's target protein. Kaempferitrin effectively improved renal function, indicated by reduced serum creatinine and blood urea nitrogen levels. In the UUO model, it significantly reduced tubular necrosis, inflammation, and fibrosis. Its renoprotective effects were linked to ferroptosis inhibition, evidenced by decreased iron, 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE), and malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and increased glutathione (GSH). Kaempferitrin also normalized glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and Solute Carrier Family 7 Member 11(SLC7A11) expression, critical ferroptosis mediators. In vitro, it protected TECs from ferroptosis and consistently suppressed NOX4 expression. NOX4 transfection negated Kaempferitrin's antiferroptosis effects, while CETSA confirmed Kaempferitrin-NOX4 interaction. Kaempferitrin shows promise as a nephroprotective agent by inhibiting NOX4-mediated ferroptosis in tubular cells, offering potential therapeutic value for CKD.

Ferroptosis, pyroptosis and necroptosis in hepatocellular carcinoma immunotherapy: Mechanisms and immunologic landscape (Review)

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), one of the leading causes of cancer‑related mortality worldwide, is challenging to identify in its early stages and prone to metastasis, and the prognosis of patients with this disease is poor. Treatment options for HCC are limited, with even radical treatments being associated with a risk of recurrence or transformation in the short term. Furthermore, the multi‑tyrosine kinase inhibitors approved for first‑line therapy have marked drawbacks, including drug resistance and side effects. The rise and breakthrough of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have provided a novel direction for HCC immunotherapy but these have the drawback of low response rates. Since avoiding apoptosis is a universal feature of cancer, the induction of non‑apoptotic regulatory cell death (NARCD) is a novel strategy for HCC immunotherapy. At present, NARCD pathways, including ferroptosis, pyroptosis and necroptosis, are novel potential forms of immunogenic cell death, which have synergistic effects with antitumor immunity, transforming immune 'cold' tumors into immune 'hot' tumors and exerting antitumor effects. Therefore, these pathways may be targeted as a novel treatment strategy for HCC. In the present review, the roles of ferroptosis, pyroptosis and necroptosis in antitumor immunity in HCC are discussed, and the relevant targets and signaling pathways, and the current status of combined therapy with ICIs are summarized. The prospects of targeting ferroptosis, pyroptosis and necroptosis in HCC immunotherapy are also considered.

Ferroptosis in ulcerative colitis: Potential mechanisms and promising therapeutic targets

Ulcerative colitis (UC) is a complex immune-mediated chronic inflammatory bowel disease. It is mainly characterized by diffuse inflammation of the colonic and rectal mucosa with barrier function impairment. Identifying new biomarkers for the development of more effective UC therapies remains a pressing task for current research. Ferroptosis is a newly identified form of regulated cell death characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation. As research deepens, ferroptosis has been demonstrated to be involved in the pathological processes of numerous diseases. A growing body of evidence suggests that the pathogenesis of UC is associated with ferroptosis, and the regulation of ferroptosis provides new opportunities for UC treatment. However, the specific mechanisms by which ferroptosis participates in the development of UC remain to be more fully and thoroughly investigated. Therefore, in this review, we focus on the research advances in the mechanism of ferroptosis in recent years and describe the potential role of ferroptosis in the pathogenesis of UC. In addition, we explore the underlying role of the crosslinked pathway between ferroptosis and other mechanisms such as macrophages, neutrophils, autophagy, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and gut microbiota in UC. Finally, we also summarize the potential compounds that may act as ferroptosis inhibitors in UC in the future.

Wnt/β-catenin signaling inhibits oxidative stress-induced ferroptosis to improve interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome by reducing NF-κB

BACKGROUND

Interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS) is a bladder syndrome of unknown etiology. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) plays a major role in ferroptosis and bladder dysfunction of IC/BPS, while the role of ferroptosis in IC/BPS progression is still unclear. This study aims to investigate the role and mechanism of ROS-induced ferroptosis in IC/BPS using cell and rat model.

METHODS

We collected IC/BPS patient bladder tissue samples and established a LPS-induced IC/BPS rat model (LRM). The level of oxidative stress and ferroptosis in IC/BPS patients and LRM rats was analyzed. Function and regulatory mechanism of ferroptosis in IC/BPS were explored by in vitro and in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

The patients with IC/BPS showed mast cells and inflammatory cells infiltration in bladder epithelial tissues. Expression of NRF2 was up-regulated, and GPX4 was decreased in IC/BPS patients compared with normal tissues. IC model cells underwent oxidative stress, which induced ferroptosis. These above results were validated in LRM rat models, and inhibition of ferroptosis ameliorated bladder dysfunction in LRM rats. Wnt/β-catenin signaling was deactivated in IC/BPS patients and animals, and activation of Wnt/β-catenin signaling reduced cellular free radical production, thereby inhibited ferroptosis in IC model cells. Mechanistically, the Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway inhibited oxidative stress-induced ferroptosis by down-regulating NF-κB, thus contributing to recover IC/BPS both in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

We demonstrate for the first time that oxidative stress-induced ferroptosis plays an important role in the pathology of IC/BPS. Mechanistically, the Wnt/β-catenin signaling suppressed oxidative stress-induced ferroptosis by down-regulating NF-κB to improve bladder injury in IC/BPS.

Ferroptosis in health and disease

Ferroptosis is a pervasive non-apoptotic form of cell death highly relevant in various degenerative diseases and malignancies. The hallmark of ferroptosis is uncontrolled and overwhelming peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids contained in membrane phospholipids, which eventually leads to rupture of the plasma membrane. Ferroptosis is unique in that it is essentially a spontaneous, uncatalyzed chemical process based on perturbed iron and redox homeostasis contributing to the cell death process, but that it is nonetheless modulated by many metabolic nodes that impinge on the cells' susceptibility to ferroptosis. Among the various nodes affecting ferroptosis sensitivity, several have emerged as promising candidates for pharmacological intervention, rendering ferroptosis-related proteins attractive targets for the treatment of numerous currently incurable diseases. Herein, the current members of a Germany-wide research consortium focusing on ferroptosis research, as well as key external experts in ferroptosis who have made seminal contributions to this rapidly growing and exciting field of research, have gathered to provide a comprehensive, state-of-the-art review on ferroptosis. Specific topics include: basic mechanisms, in vivo relevance, specialized methodologies, chemical and pharmacological tools, and the potential contribution of ferroptosis to disease etiopathology and progression. We hope that this article will not only provide established scientists and newcomers to the field with an overview of the multiple facets of ferroptosis, but also encourage additional efforts to characterize further molecular pathways modulating ferroptosis, with the ultimate goal to develop novel pharmacotherapies to tackle the various diseases associated with - or caused by - ferroptosis.

Ferroptosis inhibitors: past, present and future

Ferroptosis is a non-apoptotic mode of programmed cell death characterized by iron dependence and lipid peroxidation. Since the ferroptosis was proposed, researchers have revealed the mechanisms of its formation and continue to explore effective inhibitors of ferroptosis in disease. Recent studies have shown a correlation between ferroptosis and the pathological mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases, as well as diseases involving tissue or organ damage. Acting on ferroptosis-related targets may provide new strategies for the treatment of ferroptosis-mediated diseases. This article specifically describes the metabolic pathways of ferroptosis and summarizes the reported mechanisms of action of natural and synthetic small molecule inhibitors of ferroptosis and their efficacy in disease. The paper also describes ferroptosis treatments such as gene therapy, cell therapy, and nanotechnology, and summarises the challenges encountered in the clinical translation of ferroptosis inhibitors. Finally, the relationship between ferroptosis and other modes of cell death is discussed, hopefully paving the way for future drug design and discovery.

Competing endogenous RNA networks and ferroptosis in cancer: novel therapeutic targets

As a newly identified regulated cell death, ferroptosis is a metabolically driven process that relies on iron and is associated with polyunsaturated fatty acyl peroxidation, elevated levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and mitochondrial damage. This distinct regulated cell death is dysregulated in various cancers; activating ferroptosis in malignant cells increases cancer immunotherapy and chemoradiotherapy responses across different malignancies. Over the last decade, accumulating research has provided evidence of cross-talk between non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) and competing endogenous RNA (ceRNA) networks and highlighted their significance in developing and progressing malignancies. Aside from pharmaceutical agents to regulate ferroptosis, recent studies have shed light on the potential of restoring dysregulated ferroptosis-related ceRNA networks in cancer treatment. The present study provides a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the ferroptosis significance, ferroptosis pathways, the role of ferroptosis in cancer immunotherapy and chemoradiotherapy, ceRNA biogenesis, and ferroptosis-regulating ceRNA networks in different cancers. The provided insights can offer the authorship with state-of-the-art findings and future perspectives regarding the ferroptosis and ferroptosis-related ceRNA networks and their implication in the treatment and determining the prognosis of affected patients.

Sperm freezing damage: the role of regulated cell death

Substantial progress in research on sperm cryopreservation has occurred since the twentieth century, especially focusing on improving sperm freezing procedures and optimizing semen extenders. However, the cellular biological mechanisms of sperm freezing damage are still unclear, which greatly restricts the promotion and development of sperm cryopreservation. An essential component of sperm freezing damage is the occurrence of cell death. Considering the existence of multiple types of cell death pathways, this review discusses connections between characteristics of regulated cell death (e.g., apoptosis and ferroptosis), and accidental cell death (e.g., intracellular ice crystals) with sperm freezing damage and explores possible future research directions in this field.

Ferroptosis: a potential bridge linking gut microbiota and chronic kidney disease

Ferroptosis is a novel form of lipid peroxidation-driven, iron-dependent programmed cell death. Various metabolic pathways, including those involved in lipid and iron metabolism, contribute to ferroptosis regulation. The gut microbiota not only supplies nutrients and energy to the host, but also plays a crucial role in immune modulation and metabolic balance. In this review, we explore the metabolic pathways associated with ferroptosis and the impact of the gut microbiota on host metabolism. We subsequently summarize recent studies on the influence and regulation of ferroptosis by the gut microbiota and discuss potential mechanisms through which the gut microbiota affects ferroptosis. Additionally, we conduct a bibliometric analysis of the relationship between the gut microbiota and ferroptosis in the context of chronic kidney disease. This analysis can provide new insights into the current research status and future of ferroptosis and the gut microbiota.

Integration of metabolomics and transcriptomics reveals that Da Chuanxiong Formula improves vascular cognitive impairment via ACSL4/GPX4 mediated ferroptosis

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Da Chuanxiong Formula (DCX) is a traditional herbal compound composed of Gastrodia elata Bl. and Ligusticum chuanxiong Hort, which could significantly enhance blood circulation and neuroprotection, showing promise in treating Vascular Cognitive Impairment (VCI).

AIM OF STUDY

This study aims to elucidate the potential of DCX in treating VCI and its underlying mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Firstly, the cognitive behavior level, blood flow changes, and brain pathology changes were evaluated through techniques such as the Morris water maze, step-down, laser speckle, coagulation analysis, and pathological staining to appraise the DCX efficacy. Then, the DCX targeting pathways were decoded by merging metabolomics with transcriptomics. Finally, the levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS), Fe2+, and lipid peroxidation related to the targeting signaling pathways of DCX were detected by kit, and the expression levels of mRNAs or proteins related to ferroptosis were determined by qPCR or Western blot assays respectively.

RESULTS

DCX improved cognitive abilities and cerebral perfusion significantly, and mitigated pathological damage in the hippocampal region of VCI model rats. Metabolomics revealed that DCX was able to call back 33 metabolites in plasma and 32 metabolites in brain samples, and the majority of the differential metabolites are phospholipid metabolites. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that DCX regulated a total of 3081 genes, with the ferroptosis pathway exhibiting the greatest impact. DCX inhibited ferroptosis of VCI rates by decreasing the levels of ferrous iron, ROS, and malondialdehyde (MDA) while increasing the level of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) in VCI rats. Moreover, the mRNA and protein levels of ACSL4, LPCAT3, ALOX15, and GPX4, which are related to lipid metabolism in ferroptosis, were also regulated by DCX.

CONCLUSION

Our research findings indicated that DCX could inhibit ferroptosis through the ACSL4/GPX4 signaling pathway, thereby exerting its therapeutic benefits on VCI.

Ferroptosis inducers: A new frontier in cancer therapy

Ferroptosis represents a non-apoptotic form of programmed cell death characterized by iron-dependent lipid peroxidation. This cell death modality not only facilitates the direct elimination of cancer cells, but also enhances their susceptibility to other pharmacological anti-cancer agents. The burgeoning interest in ferroptosis has been driven by a growing body of evidence that underscores the efficiency and minimal toxicity of ferroptosis inducers. Traditional inducers, such as erastin and RSL3 have shown substantial promise in clinical applications due to their potent therapeutic effects. Their significant potential of these inducers has spurred the development of a variety of small molecule ferroptosis inducers. These novel inducers boast an enhanced structural variety, improved metabolic stability, the capability to initiate ferroptosis without triggering apoptosis, making them well-suited for in vivo use. Despite these advancements, challenges still remain, particularly concerning the drug delivery, tumor specificity, and circulation duration of these small molecules in vivo. Addressing these challenges, contemporary research has pivoted towards innovative delivery systems tailored for ferroptosis inducers to facilitate precise, targeted, and synegestic therapeutic delivery. This review scrutinizes the latest progress in small molecule ferroptosis inducers and nano drug delivery systems geared towards ferroptosis sensitization. Furthermore, it delineated the prospective therapeutic advantages and the existing hurdles in the development of ferroptosis inducers for malignant tumor treatment.

Ferroptosis and its role in gastric and colorectal cancers

Ferroptosis is a novel mechanism of programmed cell death, characterized by intracellular iron overload, intensified lipid peroxidation, and abnormal accumulation of reactive oxygen species, which ultimately resulting in cell membrane impairment and demise. Research has revealed that cancer cells exhibit a greater demand for iron compared to normal cells, indicating a potential susceptibility of cancer cells to ferroptosis. Stomach and colorectal cancers are common gastrointestinal malignancies, and their elevated occurrence and mortality rates render them a global health concern. Despite significant advancements in medical treatments, certain unfavorable consequences and drug resistance persist. Consequently, directing attention towards the phenomenon of ferroptosis in gastric and colorectal cancers holds promise for enhancing therapeutic efficacy. This review aims to elucidate the intricate cellular metabolism associated with ferroptosis, encompassing lipid and amino acid metabolism, as well as iron metabolic processes. Furthermore, the significance of ferroptosis in the context of gastric and colorectal cancer is thoroughly examined and discussed.

The role of ferroptosis as a regulator of oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of ischemic stroke

Ferroptosis is a unique form of cell death that was first described in 2012 and plays a significant role in various diseases, including neurodegenerative conditions. It depends on a dysregulation of cellular iron metabolism, which increases free, redox-active, iron that can trigger Fenton reactions, generating hydroxyl radicals that damage cells through oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation. Lipid peroxides, resulting mainly from unsaturated fatty acids, damage cells by disrupting membrane integrity and propagating cell death signals. Moreover, lipid peroxide degradation products can further affect cellular components such as DNA, proteins, and amines. In ischemic stroke, where blood flow to the brain is restricted, there is increased iron absorption, oxidative stress, and compromised blood-brain barrier integrity. Imbalances in iron-transport and -storage proteins increase lipid oxidation and contribute to neuronal damage, thus pointing to the possibility of brain cells, especially neurons, dying from ferroptosis. Here, we review the evidence showing a role of ferroptosis in ischemic stroke, both in recent studies directly assessing this type of cell death, as well as in previous studies showing evidence that can now be revisited with our new knowledge on ferroptosis mechanisms. We also review the efforts made to target ferroptosis in ischemic stroke as a possible treatment to mitigate cellular damage and death.

Molecular mechanism of ferroptosis and its application in the treatment of clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) is a common malignant tumor of the urinary tract, the incidence of which is continuously increasing and affects human health worldwide. Despite advances in existing treatments, treatment outcomes still need to be improved due to higher rates of postoperative recurrence, chemotherapy resistance, etc.; thus, there is an urgent need for innovative therapeutic approaches. Ferroptosis is a recently found type of regulated cell death that is characterized primarily by the buildup of lipid peroxidation products and fatal reactive oxygen species created by iron metabolism, which plays a crucial role in tumor progression and therapy.With the molecular mechanisms associated with ferroptosis being increasingly studied and refined, triggering ferroptosis by regulators that target ferroptosis and ccRCC may be the key to developing potential therapeutic strategies for ccRCC. Therefore, ferroptosis is expected to be a new breakthrough in treating ccRCC. This paper examines the mechanism of ferroptosis, the regulatory mechanism of ferroptosis in ccRCC, and the potential application of ferroptosis in combination with other therapies for the treatment of ccRCC. The goal is to offer novel perspectives for the research and clinical application of ferroptosis in the treatment of ccRCC.

Cold resistance of mammalian hibernators ∼ a matter of ferroptosis?

Most mammals adapt thermal physiology around 37°C and large deviations from their range, as observed in severe hypothermia and hyperthermia, resulting in organ dysfunction and individual death. A prominent exception is mammalian hibernation. Mammalian hibernators resist the long-term duration of severe low body temperature that is lethal to non-hibernators, including humans and mice. This cold resistance is supported, at least in part, by intrinsic cellular properties, since primary or immortalized cells from several hibernator species can survive longer than those from non-hibernators when cultured at cold temperatures. Recent studies have suggested that cold-induced cell death fulfills the hallmarks of ferroptosis, a type of necrotic cell death that accompanies extensive lipid peroxidation by iron-ion-mediated reactions. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge of cold resistance of mammalian hibernators at the cellular and molecular levels to organ and systemic levels and discuss key pathways that confer cold resistance in mammals.

Therapeutic exploitation of ferroptosis

Pathological breakdown of membrane lipids through excessive lipid peroxidation (LPO) was first described in the mid-20th century and is now recognized as a form of regulated cell death, dubbed ferroptosis. Accumulating evidence unveils how metabolic regulation restrains peroxidation of phospholipids within cellular membranes, thereby impeding ferroptosis execution. Unleashing these metabolic breaks is currently therapeutically explored to sensitize cancers to ferroptosis inducing anti-cancer therapies. Reversely, these natural ferroptotic defense mechanisms can fail resulting in pathological conditions or diseases such as ischemia-reperfusion injury, multi-organ dysfunction, stroke, infarction, or neurodegenerative diseases. This minireview outlines current ferroptosis-inducing anti-cancer strategies and highlights the detection as well as the therapeutic targeting of ferroptosis in preclinical experimental settings. Herein, we also briefly summarize observations related to LPO, iron and redox deregulation in patients that might hint towards ferroptosis as a contributing factor.

FSP1-mediated ferroptosis in cancer: from mechanisms to therapeutic applications

Ferroptosis is a new discovered regulated cell death triggered by the ferrous ion (Fe2+)-dependent accumulation of lipid peroxides associated with cancer and many other diseases. The mechanism of ferroptosis includes oxidation systems (such as enzymatic oxidation and free radical oxidation) and antioxidant systems (such as GSH/GPX4, CoQ10/FSP1, BH4/GCH1 and VKORC1L1/VK). Among them, ferroptosis suppressor protein 1 (FSP1), as a crucial regulatory factor in the antioxidant system, has shown a crucial role in ferroptosis. FSP1 has been well validated to ferroptosis in three ways, and a variety of intracellular factors and drug molecules can alleviate ferroptosis via FSP1, which has been demonstrated to alter the sensitivity and effectiveness of cancer therapies, including chemotherapy, radiotherapy, targeted therapy and immunotherapy. This review aims to provide important frameworks that, bring the regulation of FSP1 mediated ferroptosis into cancer therapies on the basis of existing studies.

Ferrous gluconate triggers ferroptosis in Escherichia coli: Implications of lipid peroxidation and DNA damage

Microbial ferroptosis has been proved to combat drug-resistant pathogens, but whether this pattern can be applied to the prevention and control of Escherichia coli remains to be further explored. In this study, ferrous gluconate (FeGlu) showed remarkable efficacy in killing E. coli MG1655 with a mortality rate exceeding 99.9%, as well as enterotoxigenic E. coli H10407 (ETEC H10407) and enterohemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7 (EHEC O157:H7). Bacteria death was instigated by the infiltration of Fe2+, accompanied by a burst of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation. Notably, mitigating lipid peroxidation failed to alleviate death of E. coli. Further findings confirmed that FeGlu induced DNA damage, and ΔrecA mutant showed more sensitive, implicating that DNA damage was involved in the death of E. coli. The direct interaction of Fe2+ with DNA was demonstrated by fluorescent staining, gel electrophoresis, and circular dichroism (CD). Moreover, proteomic analysis unveiled 50 differentially expressed proteins (DEPs), including 18 significantly down-regulated proteins and 32 significantly up-regulated proteins. Among them, the down-regulation of SOS-responsive transcriptional suppressor LexA indicated DNA damage induced severely by FeGlu. Furthermore, FeGlu influenced pathways such as fatty acid metabolism (FadB, FadE), iron-sulfur cluster assembly (IscA, IscU, YadR), iron binding, and DNA-binding transcription, along with α-linolenic acid metabolism, fatty acid degradation, and pyruvate metabolism. These pathways were related to FeGlu stress, including lipid peroxidation and DNA damage. In summary, FeGlu facilitated ferroptosis in E. coli through mechanisms involving lipid peroxidation and DNA damage, which presents a new strategy for the development of innovative antimicrobial strategies targeting E. coli infections.

Role of ferroptosis in fibrosis: From mechanism to potential therapy

ABSTRACT

Fibrosis, which is a manifestation of the physiological response to injury characterized by excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix components, is a ubiquitous outcome of the repair process. However, in cases of repetitive or severe injury, fibrosis may become dysregulated, leading to a pathological state and organ failure. In recent years, a novel form of regulated cell death, referred to as ferroptosis, has been identified as a possible contributor to fibrosis; it is characterized by iron-mediated lipid peroxidation. It has garnered attention due to the growing body of evidence linking ferroptosis and fibrogenesis, which is believed to be driven by underlying inflammation and immune responses. Despite the increasing interest in the relationship between ferroptosis and fibrosis, a comprehensive understanding of the precise role that ferroptosis plays in the formation of fibrotic tissue remains limited. This review seeks to synthesize previous research related to the topic. We categorized the different direct and indirect mechanisms by which ferroptosis may contribute to fibrosis into three categories: (1) iron overload toxicity; (2) ferroptosis-evoked necroinflammation, with a focus on ferroptosis and macrophage interplay; and (3) ferroptosis-associated pro-fibrotic factors and pathways. Furthermore, the review considers the potential implications of these findings and highlights the utilization of ferroptosis-targeted therapies as a promising strategy for mitigating the progression of fibrosis. In conclusion, novel anti-fibrotic treatments targeting ferroptosis could be an effective treatment for fibrosis.

Lipoxygenases at the Intersection of Infection and Carcinogenesis

The persisting presence of opportunistic pathogens like Pseudomonas aeruginosa poses a significant threat to many immunocompromised cancer patients with pulmonary infections. This review highlights the complexity of interactions in the host's defensive eicosanoid signaling network and its hijacking by pathogenic bacteria to their own advantage. Human lipoxygenases (ALOXs) and their mouse counterparts are integral elements of the innate immune system, mostly operating in the pro-inflammatory mode. Taking into account the indispensable role of inflammation in carcinogenesis, lipoxygenases have counteracting roles in this process. In addition to describing the structure-function of lipoxygenases in this review, we discuss their roles in such critical processes as cancer cell signaling, metastases, death of cancer and immune cells through ferroptosis, as well as the roles of ALOXs in carcinogenesis promoted by pathogenic infections. Finally, we discuss perspectives of novel oncotherapeutic approaches to harness lipoxygenase signaling in tumors.

Edaravone-loaded poly(amino acid) nanogel inhibits ferroptosis for neuroprotection in cerebral ischemia injury

Neurological injury caused by ischemic stroke is a major cause of permanent disability and death. The currently available neuroprotective drugs fail to achieve desired therapeutic efficacy mainly due to short circulation half-life and poor blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability. For that, an edaravone-loaded pH/glutathione (pH/GSH) dual-responsive poly(amino acid) nanogel (NG/EDA) was developed to improve the neuroprotection of EDA. The nanogel was triggered by acidic and EDA-induced high-level GSH microenvironments, which enabled the selective and sustained release of EDA at the site of ischemic injury. NG/EDA exhibited a uniform sub-spherical morphology with a mean hydrodynamic diameter of 112.3 ± 8.2 nm. NG/EDA efficiently accumulated at the cerebral ischemic injury site of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAO) mice, showing an efficient BBB crossing feature. Notably, NG/EDA with 50 µM EDA significantly increased neuron survival (29.3%) following oxygen and glucose deprivation by inhibiting ferroptosis. In addition, administering NG/EDA for 7 d significantly reduced infarct volume to 22.2% ± 7.2% and decreased neurobehavioral scores from 9.0 ± 0.6 to 2.0 ± 0.8. Such a pH/GSH dual-responsive nanoplatform might provide a unique and promising modality for neuroprotection in ischemic stroke and other central nervous system diseases.

Ferroptosis and cuproptposis in kidney Diseases: dysfunction of cell metabolism

Metal ions play an important role in living organisms and are involved in essential physiological activities. However, the overload state of ions can cause excess free radicals, cell damage, and even cell death. Ferroptosis and cuproptosis are specific forms of cell death that are distinct from apoptosis, necroptosis, and other regulated cell death. These unique modalities of cell death, dependent on iron and copper, are regulated by multiple cellular metabolic pathways, including steady-state metal redox treatment mitochondrial activity of lipid, amino acid and glucose metabolism, and various signaling pathways associated with disease. Although the mechanisms of ferroptosis and cuproptosis are not yet fully understood, there is no doubt that ion overload plays a crucial act in these metal-dependent cell deaths. In this review, we discussed the core roles of ion overload in ferroptosis and cuproptosis, the association between metabolism imbalance and ferroptosis and cuproptosis, the extract the diseases caused by ion overload and current treatment modalities.

Ferroptosis: Frenemy of Radiotherapy

Recently, it was established that ferroptosis, a type of iron-dependent regulated cell death, plays a prominent role in radiotherapy-triggered cell death. Accordingly, ferroptosis inducers attracted a lot of interest as potential radio-synergizing drugs, ultimately enhancing radioresponses and patient outcomes. Nevertheless, the tumor microenvironment seems to have a major impact on ferroptosis induction. The influence of hypoxic conditions is an area of interest, as it remains the principal hurdle in the field of radiotherapy. In this review, we focus on the implications of hypoxic conditions on ferroptosis, contemplating the plausibility of using ferroptosis inducers as clinical radiosensitizers. Furthermore, we dive into the prospects of drug repurposing in the domain of ferroptosis inducers and radiosensitizers. Lastly, the potential adverse effects of ferroptosis inducers on normal tissue were discussed in detail. This review will provide an important framework for subsequent ferroptosis research, ascertaining the feasibility of ferroptosis inducers as clinical radiosensitizers.

A deep insight into ferroptosis in lung disease: facts and perspectives

In the last decade, ferroptosis has received much attention from the scientific research community. It differs from other modes of cell death at the morphological, biochemical, and genetic levels. Ferroptosis is mainly characterized by non-apoptotic iron-dependent cell death caused by iron-dependent lipid peroxide excess and is accompanied by abnormal iron metabolism and oxidative stress. In recent years, more and more studies have shown that ferroptosis is closely related to the occurrence and development of lung diseases. COPD, asthma, lung injury, lung fibrosis, lung cancer, lung infection and other respiratory diseases have become the third most common chronic diseases worldwide, bringing serious economic and psychological burden to people around the world. However, the exact mechanism by which ferroptosis is involved in the development and progression of lung diseases has not been fully revealed. In this manuscript, we describe the mechanism of ferroptosis, targeting of ferroptosis related signaling pathways and proteins, summarize the relationship between ferroptosis and respiratory diseases, and explore the intervention and targeted therapy of ferroptosis for respiratory diseases.

Ferroptosis and oxidative stress in endometriosis: A systematic review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Endometriosis (EMT) a common gynecological condition in women, an inflammatory disease characterized by the presence of endometrial tissue on organs and tissues in the pelvis, and is mainly associated with chronic pelvic pain and infertility. As the etiology has not been fully elucidated, current treatment is limited to surgery, hormones and painkillers, with more side effects and difficulty in achieving long-term relief. Oxidative stress manifests itself as an overproduction of reactive oxygen species, which has an integral impact in the pathology of female reproductive disorders. In this review, we evaluate the mechanisms of iron overload-induced oxidative stress and ferroptosis in EMT and their pathophysiological implications.

METHODS

Because the etiology has not been fully elucidated, current treatments are limited to surgery, hormones, and painkillers, which have many side effects and are difficult to achieve long-term relief.

RESULTS

We interpreted that antioxidants as well as ferroptosis inducers show promising results in the treatment of EMT, but their application in this population needs to be further investigated.

CONCLUSION

In combination with the interpretation of previous studies, it was shown that iron overload is present in the peritoneal fluid, endometriotic lesions, peritoneum and macrophages in the abdominal cavity. However, the programmed cellular ferroptosis associated with iron overload is resisted by endometriotic foci, which is critical to the pathophysiology of EMT with local iron overload and inflammation.

Harnessing ferroptosis for enhanced sarcoma treatment: mechanisms, progress and prospects

Sarcoma is a malignant tumor that originates from mesenchymal tissue. The common treatment for sarcoma is surgery supplemented with radiotherapy and chemotherapy. However, patients have a 5-year survival rate of only approximately 60%, and sarcoma cells are highly resistant to chemotherapy. Ferroptosis is an iron-dependent nonapoptotic type of regulated programmed cell death that is closely related to the pathophysiological processes underlying tumorigenesis, neurological diseases and other conditions. Moreover, ferroptosis is mediated via multiple regulatory pathways that may be targets for disease therapy. Recent studies have shown that the induction of ferroptosis is an effective way to kill sarcoma cells and reduce their resistance to chemotherapeutic drugs. Moreover, ferroptosis-related genes are related to the immune system, and their expression can be used to predict sarcoma prognosis. In this review, we describe the molecular mechanism underlying ferroptosis in detail, systematically summarize recent research progress with respect to ferroptosis application as a sarcoma treatment in various contexts, and point out gaps in the theoretical research on ferroptosis, challenges to its clinical application, potential resolutions of these challenges to promote ferroptosis as an efficient, reliable and novel method of clinical sarcoma treatment.

Ferroptosis in cancer: From molecular mechanisms to therapeutic strategies

Ferroptosis is a non-apoptotic form of regulated cell death characterized by the lethal accumulation of iron-dependent membrane-localized lipid peroxides. It acts as an innate tumor suppressor mechanism and participates in the biological processes of tumors. Intriguingly, mesenchymal and dedifferentiated cancer cells, which are usually resistant to apoptosis and traditional therapies, are exquisitely vulnerable to ferroptosis, further underscoring its potential as a treatment approach for cancers, especially for refractory cancers. However, the impact of ferroptosis on cancer extends beyond its direct cytotoxic effect on tumor cells. Ferroptosis induction not only inhibits cancer but also promotes cancer development due to its potential negative impact on anticancer immunity. Thus, a comprehensive understanding of the role of ferroptosis in cancer is crucial for the successful translation of ferroptosis therapy from the laboratory to clinical applications. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent advancements in understanding ferroptosis in cancer, covering molecular mechanisms, biological functions, regulatory pathways, and interactions with the tumor microenvironment. We also summarize the potential applications of ferroptosis induction in immunotherapy, radiotherapy, and systemic therapy, as well as ferroptosis inhibition for cancer treatment in various conditions. We finally discuss ferroptosis markers, the current challenges and future directions of ferroptosis in the treatment of cancer.

Research progress on ferroptosis in the pathogenesis and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

Globally, millions of individuals are impacted by neurodegenerative disorders including Huntington's disease (HD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although a great deal of energy and financial resources have been invested in disease-related research, breakthroughs in therapeutic approaches remain elusive. The breakdown of cells usually happens together with the onset of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the mechanism that triggers neuronal loss is unknown. Lipid peroxidation, which is iron-dependent, causes a specific type of cell death called ferroptosis, and there is evidence its involvement in the pathogenic cascade of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the specific mechanisms are still not well known. The present article highlights the basic processes that underlie ferroptosis and the corresponding signaling networks. Furthermore, it provides an overview and discussion of current research on the role of ferroptosis across a variety of neurodegenerative conditions.

A regulatory module comprising G3BP1-FBXL5-IRP2 axis determines sodium arsenite-induced ferroptosis

Arsenic contamination is extremely threatening to the global public health. It was reported that sodium arsenite exposure induces serious kidney injury. However, the underlying mechanism is unclear. Ferroptosis is a newly characterized form of iron-dependent programmed cell death, which is implicated in the pathogenesis of various human diseases, including kidney injury. The lethal accumulation of iron-catalyzed lipid peroxidation is the fundamental biochemical characteristic of ferroptosis. Herein we report that sodium arsenite exposure initiates ferroptosis in mammalian HEK293, MEF and HT1080 cells, and induces ferroptosis-associated acute kidney injury in mice. RNA-binding protein G3BP1, the switch component of stress granules, is indispensable for sodium arsenite-induced ferroptosis in a stress granule-independent manner. Mechanistically, G3BP1 stabilizes IRP2, the master regulator of cellular iron homeostasis, through binding to and suppressing the translation of FBXL5 mRNA, which encodes the E3 ligase component to mediate IRP2 ubiquitination and proteasomal degradation. Sodium arsenite intoxication expedites this G3BP1-FBXL5-IRP2 axis and elevates cellular labile free iron, which is responsible for sodium arsenite exposure-induced lipid peroxidation and ferroptotic cell death. In summary, this study highlights a regulatory module comprising G3BP1-FBXL5-IRP2 axis in determining sodium arsenite-induced ferroptosis and ferroptosis-associated acute kidney injury in mice.

Attenuation of neuronal ferroptosis in intracerebral hemorrhage by inhibiting HDAC1/2: Microglial heterogenization via the Nrf2/HO1 pathway

AIM

The class I histone deacetylases (HDACs) implicate in microglial heterogenization and neuroinflammation following Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH). Ferroptosis has also been reported in the ICH model. However, the relationship between HDAC1/2's role in microglial heterogenization and neuronal ferroptosis remains unclear.

METHODS

In both in vivo and in vitro models of ICH, we used Romidepsin (FK228), a selective HDAC1/2 inhibitor, to investigate its effects on microglial heterogenization and neuronal ferroptosis. In the in vitro ICH model using Hemin, a transwell system was utilized to examine how microglia-driven inflammation and ICH-triggered neuronal ferroptosis interact. Immunostaining, Western blotting and RT-qPCR were used to evaluate the microglial heterogenization and neuronal ferroptosis. Microglial heterogenization, neuronal ferroptosis, and neurological dysfunctions were assessed in vivo ICH mice model performed by autologous blood injection.

RESULTS

HDAC1/2 inhibition altered microglial heterogenization after ICH, as showing the reducing neuroinflammation and shifting microglia towards an anti-inflammatory phenotype by immunostaining and qPCR results. HDAC1/2 inhibition reduced ferroptosis, characterized by high ROS and low GPx4 expression in HT22 cells, and reduced iron and lipid deposition post-ICH in vivo. Additionally, the Nrf2/HO1 signaling pathway, especially acetyl-Nrf2, activated in the in vivo ICH model due to HDAC1/2 inhibition, plays a role in regulating microglial heterogenization. Furthermore, HDAC1/2 inhibition improved sensorimotor and histological outcomes post-ICH, offering a potential mechanism against ICH.

CONCLUSION

Inhibition of HDAC1/2 reduces neuro-ferroptosis by modifying the heterogeneity of microglia via the Nrf2/HO1 pathway, with a particular focus on acetyl-Nrf2. Additionally, this inhibition aids in the faster removal of hematomas and lessens prolonged neurological impairments, indicating novel approach for treating ICH.