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Characterization of the Biosynthetic Gene Cluster and Shunt Products Yields Insights into the Biosynthesis of Balmoralmycin. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0120822. [PMID: 36350133 PMCID: PMC9746310 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01208-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Angucyclines are a family of structurally diverse, aromatic polyketides with some members that exhibit potent bioactivity. Angucyclines have also attracted considerable attention due to the intriguing biosynthetic origins that underlie their structural complexity and diversity. Balmoralmycin (compound 1) represents a unique group of angucyclines that contain an angular benz[α]anthracene tetracyclic system, a characteristic C-glycosidic bond-linked deoxy-sugar (d-olivose), and an unsaturated fatty acid chain. In this study, we identified a Streptomyces strain that produces balmoralmycin and seven biosynthetically related coproducts (compounds 2-8). Four of the coproducts (compounds 5-8) are novel compounds that feature a highly oxygenated or fragmented lactone ring, and three of them (compounds 3-5) exhibited cytotoxicity against the human pancreatic cancer cell line MIA PaCa-2 with IC50 values ranging from 0.9 to 1.2 μg/mL. Genome sequencing and CRISPR/dCas9-assisted gene knockdown led to the identification of the ~43 kb balmoralmycin biosynthetic gene cluster (bal BGC). The bal BGC encodes a type II polyketide synthase (PKS) system for assembling the angucycline aglycone, six enzymes for generating the deoxysugar d-olivose, and a hybrid type II/III PKS system for synthesizing the 2,4-decadienoic acid chain. Based on the genetic and chemical information, we propose a mechanism for the biosynthesis of balmoralmycin and the shunt products. The chemical and genetic studies yielded insights into the biosynthetic origin of the structural diversity of angucyclines. IMPORTANCE Angucyclines are structurally diverse aromatic polyketides that have attracted considerable attention due to their potent bioactivity and intriguing biosynthetic origin. Balmoralmycin is a representative of a small family of angucyclines with unique structural features and an unknown biosynthetic origin. We report a newly isolated Streptomyces strain that produces balmoralmycin in a high fermentation titer as well as several structurally related shunt products. Based on the chemical and genetic information, a biosynthetic pathway that involves a type II polyketide synthase (PKS) system, cyclases/aromatases, oxidoreductases, and other ancillary enzymes was established. The elucidation of the balmoralmycin pathway enriches our understanding of how structural diversity is generated in angucyclines and opens the door for the production of balmoralmycin derivatives via pathway engineering.
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Xiao X, Elsayed SS, Wu C, van der Heul HU, Metsä-Ketelä M, Du C, Prota AE, Chen CC, Liu W, Guo RT, Abrahams JP, van Wezel GP. Functional and Structural Insights into a Novel Promiscuous Ketoreductase of the Lugdunomycin Biosynthetic Pathway. ACS Chem Biol 2020; 15:2529-2538. [PMID: 32840360 PMCID: PMC7506943 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.0c00564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
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Angucyclines are
a structurally diverse class of actinobacterial
natural products defined by their varied polycyclic ring systems,
which display a wide range of biological activities. We recently discovered
lugdunomycin (1), a highly rearranged polyketide antibiotic
derived from the angucycline backbone that is synthesized via several
yet unexplained enzymatic reactions. Here, we show via in
vivo, in vitro, and structural analysis
that the promiscuous reductase LugOII catalyzes both a C6 and an unprecedented
C1 ketoreduction. This then sets the stage for the subsequent C-ring
cleavage that is key to the rearranged scaffolds of 1. The 1.1 Å structures of LugOII in complex with either ligand
8-O-Methylrabelomycin (4) or 8-O-Methyltetrangomycin (5) and of apoenzyme
were resolved, which revealed a canonical Rossman fold and a remarkable
conformational change during substrate capture and release. Mutational
analysis uncovered key residues for substrate access, position, and
catalysis as well as specific determinants that control its dual functionality.
The insights obtained in this work hold promise for the discovery
and engineering of other promiscuous reductases that may be harnessed
for the generation of novel biocatalysts for chemoenzymatic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiansha Xiao
- Molecular Biotechnology, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, 2300RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Somayah S. Elsayed
- Molecular Biotechnology, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, 2300RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Changsheng Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Institute of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, Shandong 266237, P. R. China
| | - Helga U. van der Heul
- Molecular Biotechnology, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, 2300RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Mikko Metsä-Ketelä
- Department of Biochemistry and Food Chemistry, University of Turku, FIN-20014 Turku, Finland
| | - Chao Du
- Molecular Biotechnology, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, 2300RA Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Andrea E. Prota
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Research, Division of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen, Switzerland
| | - Chun-Chi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, Hubei 43420, P. R. China
| | - Weidong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, Hubei 43420, P. R. China
| | - Rey-Ting Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Biocatalysis and Enzyme Engineering, School of Life Sciences, Hubei University, Wuhan, Hubei 43420, P. R. China
| | - Jan Pieter Abrahams
- Molecular Biotechnology, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, 2300RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Bio-nano diffraction Biozentrum, Paul Scherrer Institut, CH-5232 Villigen, Switzerland
- Biozentrum, University of Basel, Mattenstrasse 26, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Gilles P. van Wezel
- Molecular Biotechnology, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, 2300RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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Tsypik O, Makitrynskyy R, Frensch B, Zechel DL, Paululat T, Teufel R, Bechthold A. Oxidative Carbon Backbone Rearrangement in Rishirilide Biosynthesis. J Am Chem Soc 2020; 142:5913-5917. [PMID: 32182053 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.9b12736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The structural diversity of type II polyketides is largely generated by tailoring enzymes. In rishirilide biosynthesis by Streptomyces bottropensis, 13C-labeling studies previously implied extraordinary carbon backbone and side-chain rearrangements. In this work, we employ gene deletion experiments and in vitro enzyme studies to identify key biosynthetic intermediates and expose intricate redox tailoring steps for the formation of rishirilides A, B, and D and lupinacidin A. First, the flavin-dependent RslO5 reductively ring-opens the epoxide moiety of an advanced polycyclic intermediate to form an alcohol. Flavin monooxygenase RslO9 then oxidatively rearranges the carbon backbone, presumably via lactone-forming Baeyer-Villiger oxidation and subsequent intramolecular aldol condensation. While RslO9 can further convert the rearranged intermediate to rishirilide D and lupinacidin A, an additional ketoreductase RslO8 is required for formation of the main products rishirilide A and rishirilide B. This work provides insight into the structural diversification of aromatic polyketide natural products via unusual redox tailoring reactions that appear to defy biosynthetic logic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga Tsypik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Straße 19, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Roman Makitrynskyy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Straße 19, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Britta Frensch
- Faculty of Biology, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - David L Zechel
- Department of Chemistry, Queen's University, 90 Bader Lane, Kingston K7L 3N6, Ontario, Canada
| | - Thomas Paululat
- Organic Chemistry, University of Siegen, Adolf-Reichwein-Straße 2, 57068 Siegen, Germany
| | - Robin Teufel
- Faculty of Biology, Schänzlestraße 1, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Andreas Bechthold
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology and Biotechnology, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Albert-Ludwigs-Universität Freiburg, Stefan-Meier-Straße 19, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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Manenda MS, Picard MÈ, Zhang L, Cyr N, Zhu X, Barma J, Pascal JM, Couture M, Zhang C, Shi R. Structural analyses of the Group A flavin-dependent monooxygenase PieE reveal a sliding FAD cofactor conformation bridging OUT and IN conformations. J Biol Chem 2020; 295:4709-4722. [PMID: 32111738 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2019] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Group A flavin-dependent monooxygenases catalyze the cleavage of the oxygen-oxygen bond of dioxygen, followed by the incorporation of one oxygen atom into the substrate molecule with the aid of NADPH and FAD. These flavoenzymes play an important role in many biological processes, and their most distinct structural feature is the choreographed motions of flavin, which typically adopts two distinct conformations (OUT and IN) to fulfill its function. Notably, these enzymes seem to have evolved a delicate control system to avoid the futile cycle of NADPH oxidation and FAD reduction in the absence of substrate, but the molecular basis of this system remains elusive. Using protein crystallography, size-exclusion chromatography coupled to multi-angle light scattering (SEC-MALS), and small-angle X-ray scattering (SEC-SAXS) and activity assay, we report here a structural and biochemical characterization of PieE, a member of the Group A flavin-dependent monooxygenases involved in the biosynthesis of the antibiotic piericidin A1. This analysis revealed that PieE forms a unique hexamer. Moreover, we found, to the best of our knowledge for the first time, that in addition to the classical OUT and IN conformations, FAD possesses a "sliding" conformation that exists in between the OUT and IN conformations. This observation sheds light on the underlying mechanism of how the signal of substrate binding is transmitted to the FAD-binding site to efficiently initiate NADPH binding and FAD reduction. Our findings bridge a gap currently missing in the orchestrated order of chemical events catalyzed by this important class of enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahder S Manenda
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie, et de Bio-informatique, PROTEO, Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada.,Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Marie-Ève Picard
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie, et de Bio-informatique, PROTEO, Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada.,Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Liping Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, RNAM Center for Marine Microbiology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, China
| | - Normand Cyr
- Département de biochimie et médecine moléculaire, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Xiaojun Zhu
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie, et de Bio-informatique, PROTEO, Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada.,Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Julie Barma
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie, et de Bio-informatique, PROTEO, Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada.,Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - John M Pascal
- Département de biochimie et médecine moléculaire, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Québec H3T 1J4, Canada
| | - Manon Couture
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie, et de Bio-informatique, PROTEO, Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada.,Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Changsheng Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, RNAM Center for Marine Microbiology, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Marine Materia Medica, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, 164 West Xingang Road, Guangzhou 510301, China
| | - Rong Shi
- Département de Biochimie, de Microbiologie, et de Bio-informatique, PROTEO, Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada .,Institut de Biologie Intégrative et des Systèmes (IBIS), Université Laval, Québec G1V 0A6, Canada
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Wang W, Li J, Li H, Fan K, Liu Y. Crystal structure of AlpK: An essential monooxygenase involved in the biosynthesis of kinamycin. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2019; 510:601-605. [PMID: 30739782 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2019.01.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
AlpK is an essential monooxygenase involved in the biosynthesis of kinamycin. It catalyzes the C5-hyfroxylattion of the crucial benzo[b]-fluorence intermediate in kinamycin synthesis. However, the structure and mechanism of AlpK is unclear. Here, we report the first structure of AlpK in complex with FAD. Our structure sheds light on the catalytic mechanism of AlpK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenpeng Wang
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Jun Li
- School of Medicine, Sun Yat-Sen University, Shenzhen, 510080, China
| | - HuanHuan Li
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, China
| | - Keqing Fan
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
| | - Yingfang Liu
- National Laboratory of Biomacromolecules, Institute of Biophysics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Colorectal and Pelvic Floor Diseases, the Sixth Affiliated Hospital, School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.
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6
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Abstract
Rishirilide B was isolated from Streptomyces rishiriensis and Streptomyces bottropensis on the basis of its inhibitory activity towards alpha-2-macroglobulin. The biosynthesis of rishirilide B was investigated by feeding experiments with different 13C labelled precursors using the heterologous host Streptomyces albus J1074::cos4 containing a cosmid encoding of the gene cluster responsible for rishirilide B production. NMR spectroscopic analysis of labelled compounds demonstrate that the tricyclic backbone of rishirilide B is a polyketide synthesized from nine acetate units. One of the acetate units is decarboxylated to give a methyl group. The origin of the starter unit was determined to be isobutyrate.
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7
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Salem SM, Weidenbach S, Rohr J. Two Cooperative Glycosyltransferases Are Responsible for the Sugar Diversity of Saquayamycins Isolated from Streptomyces sp. KY 40-1. ACS Chem Biol 2017; 12:2529-2534. [PMID: 28892347 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.7b00453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Glycosyltransferases are key enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of valuable natural products providing an excellent drug-tailoring tool. Herein, we report the identification of two cooperative glycosyltransferases from the sqn gene cluster directing the biosynthesis of saquayamycins in Streptomyces sp. KY40-1: SqnG1 and SqnG2. Gene inactivation of sqnG1 leads to 50-fold decrease in saquayamycin production, while inactivation of sqnG2 leads to complete production loss, suggesting that SqnG2 acts as dual O- and C-glycosyltransferase. Gene inactivation of a third putative glycosyltransferase-encoding gene, sqnG3, does not affect saquayamycin production in a major way, suggesting that SqnG3 has no or a supportive role in glycosylation. The data indicate that SqnG1 and SqnG2 are solely and possibly cooperatively responsible for the sugar diversity observed in saquayamycins 1-7. This is the first evidence of a glycosyltransferase system showing codependence to achieve dual O- and C-glycosyltransferase activity, utilizing NDP-activated d-olivose, l-rhodinose, as well as an unusual amino sugar, presumably 3,6-dideoxy-l-idosamine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaimaa M. Salem
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
| | - Stevi Weidenbach
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
| | - Jürgen Rohr
- Department of Pharmaceutical
Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Kentucky 40536, United States
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8
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Gao G, Liu X, Xu M, Wang Y, Zhang F, Xu L, Lv J, Long Q, Kang Q, Ou HY, Wang Y, Rohr J, Deng Z, Jiang M, Lin S, Tao M. Formation of an Angular Aromatic Polyketide from a Linear Anthrene Precursor via Oxidative Rearrangement. Cell Chem Biol 2017; 24:881-891.e4. [PMID: 28712746 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2017.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial aromatic polyketides are a group of natural products synthesized by polyketide synthases (PKSs) that show diverse structures and biological activities. They are structurally subclassified into linear, angular, and discoid aromatic polyketides, the formation of which is commonly determined by the shaping and folding of the poly-β-keto intermediates under the concerted actions of the minimal PKSs, cyclases and ketoreductases. Murayaquinone, found in several streptomycetes, possesses an unusual tricyclic angular aromatic polyketide core containing a 9,10-phenanthraquinone. In this study, genes essential for murayaquinone biosynthesis were identified, and a linear anthraoxirene intermediate was discovered. A unique biosynthetic model for the angular aromatic polyketide formation was discovered and confirmed through in vivo and in vitro studies. Three oxidoreductases, MrqO3, MrqO6, and MrqO7, were identified to catalyze the conversion of the linear aromatic polyketide intermediate into the final angularly arranged framework, which exemplifies a novel strategy for the biosynthesis of angular aromatic polyketides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guixi Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Xiangyang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Min Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Yemin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Fei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Lijun Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Jin Lv
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Qingshan Long
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Qianjin Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Hong-Yu Ou
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Ying Wang
- Guangdong Province Key Laboratory of Pharmacodynamic Constituents of TCM and New Drugs Research, JNU-HKUST Joint Laboratory for Neuroscience and Innovative Drug Research, Jinan University, Guangzhou 510632, P. R. China
| | - Jürgen Rohr
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Zixin Deng
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China
| | - Ming Jiang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China.
| | - Shuangjun Lin
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China.
| | - Meifeng Tao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Metabolism, Joint International Research Laboratory of Metabolic & Developmental Sciences, and School of Life Sciences and Biotechnology, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200030, P. R. China.
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9
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Abstract
Bacterial aromatic polyketides, exemplified by anthracyclines, angucyclines, tetracyclines, and pentangular polyphenols, are a large family of natural products with diverse structures and biological activities and are usually biosynthesized by type II polyketide synthases (PKSs). Since the starting point of biosynthesis and combinatorial biosynthesis in 1984–1985, there has been a continuous effort to investigate the biosynthetic logic of aromatic polyketides owing to the urgent need of developing promising therapeutic candidates from these compounds. Recently, significant advances in the structural and mechanistic identification of enzymes involved in aromatic polyketide biosynthesis have been made on the basis of novel genetic, biochemical, and chemical technologies. This review highlights the progress in bacterial type II PKSs in the past three years (2013–2016). Moreover, novel compounds discovered or created by genome mining and biosynthetic engineering are also included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Hai-Xue Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Gong-Li Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Bio-organic and Natural Products Chemistry, Shanghai Institute of Organic Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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