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Stavropoulou K, Papanastasiou IP. Overview of Small Molecules as Fluorescent Probes of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:31220-31227. [PMID: 39072060 PMCID: PMC11270572 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c01992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2024] [Revised: 06/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) remains one of the leading infectious causes of death worldwide. Detecting and precisely quantifying viable Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) is crucial for comprehending mycobacterial pathogenicity; the progression and outcomes of tuberculosis; and the action, efficacy, and resistance of drugs. Fluorescent probes have emerged as indispensable tools for studying the intricate structure and dynamic interactions of M. tuberculosis with its host environment. This minireview underscores the significance of small molecules as fluorescent probes in advancing our understanding of mycobacterial biology and highlights their potential for guiding the development of novel therapeutic interventions against tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantina Stavropoulou
- Division of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupoli-Zografou, 157 71 Athens, Greece
| | - Ioannis P. Papanastasiou
- Division of Pharmaceutical
Chemistry, Department of Pharmacy, School of Health Sciences, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Panepistimioupoli-Zografou, 157 71 Athens, Greece
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2
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Hart M, Isuri RK, Ramos D, Osharovich SA, Rodriguez AE, Harmsen S, Dudek GC, Huck JL, Holt DE, Popov AV, Singhal S, Delikatny EJ. Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer Imaging Using a Phospholipase A2 Activatable Fluorophore. CHEMICAL & BIOMEDICAL IMAGING 2024; 2:490-500. [PMID: 39056064 PMCID: PMC11267604 DOI: 10.1021/cbmi.4c00026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024]
Abstract
Lung cancer, the most common cause of cancer-related death in the United States, requires advanced intraoperative detection methods to improve evaluation of surgical margins. In this study we employed DDAO-arachidonate (DDAO-A), a phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activatable fluorophore, designed for the specific optical identification of lung cancers in real-time during surgery. The in vitro fluorescence activation of DDAO-A by porcine sPLA2 was tested in various liposomal formulations, with 100 nm extruded EggPC showing the best overall characteristics. Extruded EggPC liposomes containing DDAO-A were tested for their stability under various storage conditions, demonstrating excellent stability for up to 4 weeks when stored at -20 °C or below. Cell studies using KLN 205 and LLC1 lung cancer cell lines showed DDAO-A activation was proportional to cell number. DDAO-A showed preferential activation by human recombinant cPLA2, an isoform highly specific to arachidonic acid-containing lipids, when compared to a control probe, DDAO palmitate (DDAO-P). In vivo studies with DBA/2 mice bearing KLN 205 lung tumors recapitulated these results, with preferential activation of DDAO-A relative to DDAO-P following intratumoral injection. Topical application of DDAO-A-containing liposomes to human (n = 10) and canine (n = 3) lung cancers ex vivo demonstrated the preferential activation of DDAO-A in tumor tissue relative to adjacent normal lung tissue, with fluorescent tumor-to-normal ratios (TNR) of up to 5.2:1. The combined results highlight DDAO-A as a promising candidate for clinical applications, showcasing its potential utility in intraoperative and back-table imaging and topical administration during lung cancer surgeries. By addressing the challenge of residual microscopic disease at resection margins and offering stability in liposomal formulations, DDAO-A emerges as a potentially valuable tool for advancing precision lung cancer surgery and improving curative resection rates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael
C. Hart
- Department
of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Ritesh K. Isuri
- Department
of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Pennsylvania, 231 South 34th Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Drew Ramos
- Department
of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Sofya A. Osharovich
- Department
of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Andrea E. Rodriguez
- Department
of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Stefan Harmsen
- Department
of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Grace C. Dudek
- Department
of Biology, University of Pennsylvania, 102 Leidy Laboratories 433 S University
Ave, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Jennifer L. Huck
- Department
of Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - David E. Holt
- Department
of Clinical Studies, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Anatoliy V. Popov
- Department
of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Sunil Singhal
- Department
of Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
| | - Edward J. Delikatny
- Department
of Radiology, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States
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3
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Goss AL, Shudick RE, Johnson RJ. Shifting Mycobacterial Serine Hydrolase Activity Visualized Using Multi-Layer In-Gel Activity Assays. Molecules 2024; 29:3386. [PMID: 39064965 PMCID: PMC11279797 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29143386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
The ability of Mycobacterium tuberculosis to derive lipids from the host, store them intracellularly, and then break them down into energy requires a battery of serine hydrolases. Serine hydrolases are a large, diverse enzyme family with functional roles in dormant, active, and reactivating mycobacterial cultures. To rapidly measure substrate-dependent shifts in mycobacterial serine hydrolase activity, we combined a robust mycobacterial growth system of nitrogen limitation and variable carbon availability with nimble in-gel fluorogenic enzyme measurements. Using this methodology, we rapidly analyzed a range of ester substrates, identified multiple hydrolases concurrently, observed functional enzyme shifts, and measured global substrate preferences. Within every growth condition, mycobacterial hydrolases displayed the full, dynamic range of upregulated, downregulated, and constitutively active hydrolases independent of the ester substrate. Increasing the alkyl chain length of the ester substrate also allowed visualization of distinct hydrolase activity likely corresponding with lipases most responsible for lipid breakdown. The most robust expression of hydrolase activity was observed under the highest stress growth conditions, reflecting the induction of multiple metabolic pathways scavenging for energy to survive under this high stress. The unique hydrolases present under these high-stress conditions could represent novel drug targets for combination treatment with current front-line therapeutics. Combining diverse fluorogenic esters with in-gel activity measurements provides a rapid, customizable, and sensitive detection method for mycobacterial serine hydrolase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - R. Jeremy Johnson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208, USA
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4
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Gil-Rivas A, de Pascual-Teresa B, Ortín I, Ramos A. New Advances in the Exploration of Esterases with PET and Fluorescent Probes. Molecules 2023; 28:6265. [PMID: 37687094 PMCID: PMC10488407 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28176265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 08/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Esterases are hydrolases that catalyze the hydrolysis of esters into the corresponding acids and alcohols. The development of fluorescent probes for detecting esterases is of great importance due to their wide spectrum of biological and industrial applications. These probes can provide a rapid and sensitive method for detecting the presence and activity of esterases in various samples, including biological fluids, food products, and environmental samples. Fluorescent probes can also be used for monitoring the effects of drugs and environmental toxins on esterase activity, as well as to study the functions and mechanisms of these enzymes in several biological systems. Additionally, fluorescent probes can be designed to selectively target specific types of esterases, such as those found in pathogenic bacteria or cancer cells. In this review, we summarize the recent fluorescent probes described for the visualization of cell viability and some applications for in vivo imaging. On the other hand, positron emission tomography (PET) is a nuclear-based molecular imaging modality of great value for studying the activity of enzymes in vivo. We provide some examples of PET probes for imaging acetylcholinesterases and butyrylcholinesterases in the brain, which are valuable tools for diagnosing dementia and monitoring the effects of anticholinergic drugs on the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alba Gil-Rivas
- Departamento de Química y Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Urbanización Montepríncipe, 28668 Boadilla del Monte, Spain
| | - Beatriz de Pascual-Teresa
- Departamento de Química y Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Urbanización Montepríncipe, 28668 Boadilla del Monte, Spain
| | - Irene Ortín
- Departamento de Química y Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Urbanización Montepríncipe, 28668 Boadilla del Monte, Spain
| | - Ana Ramos
- Departamento de Química y Bioquímica, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad San Pablo-CEU, CEU Universities, Urbanización Montepríncipe, 28668 Boadilla del Monte, Spain
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5
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Capela R, Félix R, Clariano M, Nunes D, Perry MDJ, Lopes F. Target Identification in Anti-Tuberculosis Drug Discovery. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10482. [PMID: 37445660 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241310482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the etiological agent of tuberculosis (TB), a disease that, although preventable and curable, remains a global epidemic due to the emergence of resistance and a latent form responsible for a long period of treatment. Drug discovery in TB is a challenging task due to the heterogeneity of the disease, the emergence of resistance, and uncomplete knowledge of the pathophysiology of the disease. The limited permeability of the cell wall and the presence of multiple efflux pumps remain a major barrier to achieve effective intracellular drug accumulation. While the complete genome sequence of Mtb has been determined and several potential protein targets have been validated, the lack of adequate models for in vitro and in vivo studies is a limiting factor in TB drug discovery programs. In current therapeutic regimens, less than 0.5% of bacterial proteins are targeted during the biosynthesis of the cell wall and the energetic metabolism of two of the most important processes exploited for TB chemotherapeutics. This review provides an overview on the current challenges in TB drug discovery and emerging Mtb druggable proteins, and explains how chemical probes for protein profiling enabled the identification of new targets and biomarkers, paving the way to disruptive therapeutic regimens and diagnostic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Capela
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita Félix
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Marta Clariano
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Diogo Nunes
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria de Jesus Perry
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Francisca Lopes
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
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6
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Finin P, Khan RMN, Oh S, Boshoff HIM, Barry CE. Chemical approaches to unraveling the biology of mycobacteria. Cell Chem Biol 2023; 30:420-435. [PMID: 37207631 PMCID: PMC10201459 DOI: 10.1016/j.chembiol.2023.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2023] [Revised: 04/07/2023] [Accepted: 04/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), perhaps more than any other organism, is intrinsically appealing to chemical biologists. Not only does the cell envelope feature one of the most complex heteropolymers found in nature1 but many of the interactions between Mtb and its primary host (we humans) rely on lipid and not protein mediators.2,3 Many of the complex lipids, glycolipids, and carbohydrates biosynthesized by the bacterium still have unknown functions, and the complexity of the pathological processes by which tuberculosis (TB) disease progress offers many opportunities for these molecules to influence the human response. Because of the importance of TB in global public health, chemical biologists have applied a wide-ranging array of techniques to better understand the disease and improve interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Finin
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - R M Naseer Khan
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sangmi Oh
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Helena I M Boshoff
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Clifton E Barry
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, NIAID, NIH, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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7
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Ma Y, Wu Y, Wang X, Gao G, Zhou X. Research Progress of Near-Infrared Fluorescent Probes Based on 1,3-Dichloro-7-hydroxy-9,9-dimethyl-2(9 H)-acridone (DDAO). CHINESE J ORG CHEM 2023. [DOI: 10.6023/cjoc202206044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
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8
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Benzoic Acid Derivatives as Prodrugs for the Treatment of Tuberculosis. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15091118. [PMID: 36145340 PMCID: PMC9502840 DOI: 10.3390/ph15091118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 09/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
One interesting approach to fight tuberculosis is the use of prodrugs that often have shown improved biological activities over drugs with poor absorption or difficulty to cross membranes. Previous studies demonstrate that weak acids such as benzoic acid, present antimycobacterial activity. Moreover, esters of those acids revealed to be a viable alternative since they may diffuse more easily through the cell membranes. Previously we showed that mycobacteria can easily activate benzoic acid esters by conversion to the corresponding acid. Since Zhang postulated that the activity of the acids can be dependent on their pKa, we set up to synthesize a library of benzoates with different electron withdrawing groups (4-chloro, 2,6-dichloro, 3,5-dichloro, 4-nitro, and 3,5 dinitro), to modulate pKa of the liberated acid and different alkoxy substituents (propyl, hexyl, and phenyl) to modulate their lipophilicity, and tested the activity of the esters and the corresponding free acids against mycobacteria. We also studied the activation of the esters by mycobacterial enzymes and the stability of the compounds in buffer and plasma. We concluded that all the benzoates in our study can be activated by mycobacterial enzymes and that the phenyl and hexyl esters presented higher activity than the corresponding free acids, with the nitrobenzoates, and especially the dinitrobenzoates, showing very interesting antitubercular activity that deserve further exploration. Our results did not show a correlation between the activity and the pKa of the acids.
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9
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Feng L, Deng Y, Song S, Sun Y, Cui J, Ma X, Jin L, Wang Y, James TD, Wang C. Visual Identification of Trichosporon asahii, a Gut Yeast Associated with Obesity, Using an Enzymatic NIR Fluorescent Probe. Anal Chem 2022; 94:11216-11223. [PMID: 35920602 PMCID: PMC9386680 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.2c01691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
![]()
Lipase found in the gut microbiota participates in the
digestion
and absorption of dietary fats. As such, the gut microbiota is involved
in the regulation of the host metabolism, affecting the levels of
lipids and free fatty acids, ultimately resulting in obesity. In this
study, an enzymatic activatable near-infrared fluorescent probe, DDAO-C6, was developed for visually sensing endogenous lipase
from gut microbes. Using DDAO-C6, a cultivated intestinal
yeast strain was rapidly identified from human feces that exhibited
high lipase expression and was identified as Trichosporon
asahii Y2. We then determined that the colonization
of the gut of mice with T. asahii Y2
increased lipase activity in the digestive tract and promoted obesity
and hyperlipidemia when the mice were fed high fat diets. Above all,
the present research resulted in a fluorescence visualization tool
for the functional investigation of gut microbiota associated with
obesity and disorders of lipid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Feng
- Second Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116023, China.,Dalian Key Laboratory of Metabolic Target Characterization and Traditional Chinese Medicine Intervention, College of Pharmacy, College of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China.,School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Ying Deng
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Metabolic Target Characterization and Traditional Chinese Medicine Intervention, College of Pharmacy, College of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Shufan Song
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Metabolic Target Characterization and Traditional Chinese Medicine Intervention, College of Pharmacy, College of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Yanqiu Sun
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Metabolic Target Characterization and Traditional Chinese Medicine Intervention, College of Pharmacy, College of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Jingnan Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Fine Chemicals, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China
| | - Xiaochi Ma
- Second Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116023, China.,Dalian Key Laboratory of Metabolic Target Characterization and Traditional Chinese Medicine Intervention, College of Pharmacy, College of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Lingling Jin
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Metabolic Target Characterization and Traditional Chinese Medicine Intervention, College of Pharmacy, College of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Dalian Key Laboratory of Metabolic Target Characterization and Traditional Chinese Medicine Intervention, College of Pharmacy, College of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Tony D James
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China.,Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, U.K
| | - Chao Wang
- Second Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116023, China.,Dalian Key Laboratory of Metabolic Target Characterization and Traditional Chinese Medicine Intervention, College of Pharmacy, College of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
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10
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Dong B, He Z, Li Y, Xu X, Wang C, Zeng J. Improved Conventional and New Approaches in the Diagnosis of Tuberculosis. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:924410. [PMID: 35711765 PMCID: PMC9195135 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.924410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is a life-threatening infectious disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis). Timely diagnosis and effective treatment are essential in the control of TB. Conventional smear microscopy still has low sensitivity and is unable to reveal the drug resistance of this bacterium. The traditional culture-based diagnosis is time-consuming, since usually the results are available after 3–4 weeks. Molecular biology methods fail to differentiate live from dead M. tuberculosis, while diagnostic immunology methods fail to distinguish active from latent TB. In view of these limitations of the existing detection techniques, in addition to the continuous emergence of multidrug-resistant and extensively drug-resistant TB, in recent years there has been an increase in the demand for simple, rapid, accurate and economical point-of-care approaches. This review describes the development, evaluation, and implementation of conventional diagnostic methods for TB and the rapid new approaches for the detection of M. tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baoyu Dong
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Zhiqun He
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Yuqing Li
- State Key Laboratory of Oral Diseases, National Clinical Research Center for Oral Diseases, West China Hospital of Stomatology, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Xinyue Xu
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Chuan Wang
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Jumei Zeng
- West China School of Public Health and West China Fourth Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
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11
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Hegde PV, Howe MD, Zimmerman MD, Boshoff HIM, Sharma S, Remache B, Jia Z, Pan Y, Baughn AD, Dartois V, Aldrich CC. Synthesis and biological evaluation of orally active prodrugs and analogs of para-aminosalicylic acid (PAS). Eur J Med Chem 2022; 232:114201. [PMID: 35219151 PMCID: PMC8941652 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 02/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB) is one of the world's most deadly infectious diseases resulting in nearly 1.3 million deaths annually and infecting nearly one-quarter of the population. para-Aminosalicylic acid (PAS), an important second-line agent for treating drug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis, has moderate bioavailability and rapid clearance that necessitate high daily doses of up to 12 g per day, which in turn causes severe gastrointestinal disturbances presumably by disruption of gut microbiota and host epithelial cells. We first synthesized a series of alkyl, acyloxy and alkyloxycarbonyloxyalkyl ester prodrugs to increase the oral bioavailability and thereby prevent intestinal accumulation as well as undesirable bioactivation by the gut microbiome to non-natural folate species that exhibit cytotoxicity. The pivoxyl prodrug of PAS was superior to all of the prodrugs examined and showed nearly quantitative absorption. While the conceptually simple prodrug approach improved the oral bioavailability of PAS, it did not address the intrinsic rapid clearance of PAS mediated by N-acetyltransferase-1 (NAT-1). Thus, we next modified the PAS scaffold to reduce NAT-1 catalyzed inactivation by introduction of groups to sterically block N-acetylation and fluorination of the aryl ring of PAS to attenuate N-acetylation by electronically deactivating the para-amino group. Among the mono-fluorinated analogs prepared, 5-fluoro-PAS, exhibited the best activity and an 11-fold decreased rate of inactivation by NAT-1 that translated to a 5-fold improved exposure as measured by area-under-the-curve (AUC) following oral dosing to CD-1 mice. The pivoxyl prodrug and fluorination at the 5-position of PAS address the primary limitations of PAS and have the potential to revitalize this second-line TB drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pooja V Hegde
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Michael D Howe
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Matthew D Zimmerman
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, USA
| | - Helena I M Boshoff
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sachin Sharma
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Brianna Remache
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, USA
| | - Ziyi Jia
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Yan Pan
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, USA
| | - Anthony D Baughn
- Department of Microbiology & Immunology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Veronique Dartois
- Center for Discovery and Innovation, Hackensack Meridian Health, Nutley, NJ, USA
| | - Courtney C Aldrich
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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12
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Hetrick KJ, Raines RT. Assessing and utilizing esterase specificity in antimicrobial prodrug development. Methods Enzymol 2022; 664:199-220. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2021.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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13
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Hetrick KJ, Aguilar Ramos MA, Raines RT. Endogenous Enzymes Enable Antimicrobial Activity. ACS Chem Biol 2021; 16:800-805. [PMID: 33877811 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.0c00894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
In light of the continued threat of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria, new strategies to expand the repertoire of antimicrobial compounds are necessary. Prodrugs are an underexploited strategy in this effort. Here, we report on the enhanced antimicrobial activity of a prodrug toward bacteria having an enzyme capable of its activation. A screen led us to the sulfurol ester of the antibiotic trans-3-(4-chlorobenzoyl)acrylic acid. An endogenous esterase makes Mycolycibacterium smegmatis sensitive to this prodrug. Candidate esterases were identified, and their heterologous production made Escherichia coli sensitive to the ester prodrug. Taken together, these data suggest a new approach to the development of antimicrobial compounds that takes advantage of endogenous enzymatic activities to target specific bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenton J. Hetrick
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Miguel A. Aguilar Ramos
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Ronald T. Raines
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
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14
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Levine SR, Beatty KE. Investigating β-Lactam Drug Targets in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Using Chemical Probes. ACS Infect Dis 2021; 7:461-470. [PMID: 33470787 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.0c00809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Tuberculosis (TB), caused by the bacterial pathogen Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb), infects 10 million people a year. An estimated 25% of humans harbor latent TB infections, an asymptomatic form of the disease. In both active and latent infections, Mtb relies on cell wall peptidoglycan for viability. In the current work, we synthesized fluorescent analogues of β-lactam antibiotics to study two classes of enzymes that maintain Mtb's peptidoglycan: penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) and l,d-transpeptidases (LDTs). This set of activity-based probes included analogues of three classes of β-lactams: a monobactam (aztreonam-Cy5), a cephalosporin (cephalexin-Cy5), and a carbapenem (meropenem-Cy5). We used these probes to profile enzyme activity in protein gel-resolved lysates of Mtb. All three out-performed the commercial reagent Bocillin-FL, a penam. Meropenem-Cy5 was used to identify β-lactam targets by mass spectrometry, including PBPs, LDTs, and the β-lactamase BlaC. New probes were also used to compare PBP and LDT activity in two metabolic states: dormancy and active replication. We provide the first direct evidence that Mtb dynamically regulates the enzymes responsible for maintaining peptidoglycan in dormancy. Lastly, we profiled drug susceptibility in lysates and found that meropenem inhibits PBPs, LDTs, and BlaC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha R. Levine
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California 92617, United States
| | - Kimberly E. Beatty
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, California 92617, United States
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15
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Gwynne L, Williams GT, Yan K, Gardiner JE, Hilton KLF, Patenall BL, Hiscock JR, Maillard J, He X, James TD, Sedgwick AC, Jenkins ATA. The Evaluation of Ester Functionalised TCF‐Based Fluorescent Probes for the Detection of Bacterial Species. Isr J Chem 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ijch.202000105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Gwynne
- Department of Chemistry University of Bath BA2 7AY Bath UK
| | - George T. Williams
- Department of Chemistry University of Bath BA2 7AY Bath UK
- School of Physical Sciences University of Kent CT2 7NH Canterbury UK
| | - Kai‐Cheng Yan
- Department of Chemistry University of Bath BA2 7AY Bath UK
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials and Joint International Research Laboratory of Precision Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Feringa Nobel Prize Scientist Joint Research Center, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Frontiers Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry East China University of Science and Technology 130 Meilong Road Shanghai 200237 China
| | | | - Kira L. F. Hilton
- School of Physical Sciences University of Kent CT2 7NH Canterbury UK
| | | | | | - Jean‐Yves Maillard
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences Cardiff University CF10 3NB Cardiff UK
| | - Xiao‐Peng He
- Key Laboratory for Advanced Materials and Joint International Research Laboratory of Precision Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Feringa Nobel Prize Scientist Joint Research Center, School of Chemistry and Molecular Engineering, Frontiers Center for Materiobiology and Dynamic Chemistry East China University of Science and Technology 130 Meilong Road Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Tony D. James
- Department of Chemistry University of Bath BA2 7AY Bath UK
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering Henan Normal University Xinxiang 453007 P. R. China
| | - Adam C. Sedgwick
- Department of Chemistry The University of Texas at Austin 105 East 24th Street A5300 Austin, Texas 78712–1224 USA
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16
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Wang Z, Wang W, Wang P, Song X, Mao Z, Liu Z. Highly Sensitive Near-Infrared Imaging of Peroxynitrite Fluxes in Inflammation Progress. Anal Chem 2021; 93:3035-3041. [PMID: 33494590 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.0c05118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation is an important protection reaction in living organisms associated with many diseases. Since peroxynitrite (ONOO-) is engaged in the inflammatory processes, illustrating the key nexus between ONOO- and inflammation is significant. Due to the lack of sensitive ONOO- in vivo detection methods, the research still remains at its infancy. Herein, a highly sensitive NIR fluorescence probe DDAO-PN for in vivo detection of ONOO- in inflammation progress was reported. The probe responded to ONOO- with significant NIR fluorescence enhancement at 657 nm (84-fold) within 30 s in solution. Intracellular imaging of exogenous ONOO- with the probe demonstrated a 68-fold fluorescence increase (F/F0). Impressively, the probe can in vivo detect ONOO- fluxes in LPS-induced rear leg inflammation with a 4.0-fold fluorescence increase and LPS-induced peritonitis with an 8.0-fold fluorescence increase The remarkable fluorescence enhancement and quick response enabled real-time tracking of in vivo ONOO- with a large signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio. These results clearly denoted that DDAO-PN was able to be a NIR fluorescence probe for in vivo detection and high-fidelity imaging of ONOO- with high sensitivity and will boost the research of inflammation-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhao Wang
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules & College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Weiwei Wang
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules & College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Pengzhan Wang
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules & College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Xinjian Song
- Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, China
| | - Zhiqiang Mao
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules & College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China
| | - Zhihong Liu
- Hubei Collaborative Innovation Center for Advanced Organic Chemical Materials, Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for the Synthesis and Application of Organic Functional Molecules & College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Hubei University, Wuhan 430062, China.,Key Laboratory of Analytical Chemistry for Biology and Medicine (Ministry of Education), College of Chemistry and Molecular Sciences, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei 430072, China
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17
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Hira J, Uddin MJ, Haugland MM, Lentz CS. From Differential Stains to Next Generation Physiology: Chemical Probes to Visualize Bacterial Cell Structure and Physiology. Molecules 2020; 25:E4949. [PMID: 33114655 PMCID: PMC7663024 DOI: 10.3390/molecules25214949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemical probes have been instrumental in microbiology since its birth as a discipline in the 19th century when chemical dyes were used to visualize structural features of bacterial cells for the first time. In this review article we will illustrate the evolving design of chemical probes in modern chemical biology and their diverse applications in bacterial imaging and phenotypic analysis. We will introduce and discuss a variety of different probe types including fluorogenic substrates and activity-based probes that visualize metabolic and specific enzyme activities, metabolic labeling strategies to visualize structural features of bacterial cells, antibiotic-based probes as well as fluorescent conjugates to probe biomolecular uptake pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Hira
- Research Group for Host-Microbe Interactions, Department of Medical Biology and Centre for New Antibacterial Strategies (CANS), UiT—The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway; (J.H.); (M.J.U.)
| | - Md. Jalal Uddin
- Research Group for Host-Microbe Interactions, Department of Medical Biology and Centre for New Antibacterial Strategies (CANS), UiT—The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway; (J.H.); (M.J.U.)
| | - Marius M. Haugland
- Department of Chemistry and Centre for New Antibacterial Strategies (CANS), UiT—The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway;
| | - Christian S. Lentz
- Research Group for Host-Microbe Interactions, Department of Medical Biology and Centre for New Antibacterial Strategies (CANS), UiT—The Arctic University of Norway, 9019 Tromsø, Norway; (J.H.); (M.J.U.)
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18
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Wang J, Teng Z, Zhang L, Yang Y, Qian J, Cao T, Cao Y, Qin W, Liu Y, Guo H. Multifunctional Near-Infrared Fluorescent Probes with Different Ring-Structure Trigger Groups for Cell Health Monitoring and In Vivo Esterase Activity Detection. ACS Sens 2020; 5:3264-3273. [PMID: 32969648 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.0c01734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
A series of multifunctional ratiometric near-infrared fluorescent probes (CYOH-3, CYOH-4, CYOH-5, and CYOH-6) for esterase detection are designed by gradually changing the deflection of the plane twist in the molecule. These probes are composed of different ring-structure trigger groups (from three-membered ring to six-membered ring) and the same luminescent group CYOH. These probes show maximum absorption at ∼585 nm and a fluorescence emission peak at ∼655 ± 5 nm. In the presence of esterase, the probes were hydrolyzed to expose the fluorophore CYOH (λabs = 690 nm, λem = 710 ± 5 nm), thus exhibiting ratiometric near-infrared fluorescence. The probe CYOH-6 has lower plane deflection angle and better ratiometric (R = I710±5nm/I657±4nm) fluorescence properties than probes CYOH-3, CYOH-4, and CYOH-5. CYOH-6 (six-membered ring) has been successfully used to target esterase in mitochondria and distinguish between dead cells (esterase inactivation) and live cells. In addition, CYOH-6 has been well used for monitoring of esterase activity in zebrafish and mice, which proves that these probes have good prospects for clinical biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiemin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Nonferrous Metal Chemistry and Resources Utilization of Gansu Province, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Special Function Materials and Structure Design (MOE), College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Zhidong Teng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, P. R. China
| | - Liang Zhang
- Department of Radiology, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing 400037, P. R. China
| | - Yuexia Yang
- Key Laboratory of Nonferrous Metal Chemistry and Resources Utilization of Gansu Province, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Special Function Materials and Structure Design (MOE), College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Jing Qian
- Key Laboratory of Nonferrous Metal Chemistry and Resources Utilization of Gansu Province, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Special Function Materials and Structure Design (MOE), College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Ting Cao
- Key Laboratory of Nonferrous Metal Chemistry and Resources Utilization of Gansu Province, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Special Function Materials and Structure Design (MOE), College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Yuping Cao
- Key Laboratory of Nonferrous Metal Chemistry and Resources Utilization of Gansu Province, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Special Function Materials and Structure Design (MOE), College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Wenwu Qin
- Key Laboratory of Nonferrous Metal Chemistry and Resources Utilization of Gansu Province, State Key Laboratory of Applied Organic Chemistry and Key Laboratory of Special Function Materials and Structure Design (MOE), College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, P. R. China
| | - Yun Liu
- Department of Radiology, Xinqiao Hospital, Army Medical University, Chongqing 400037, P. R. China
| | - Huichen Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology and Key Laboratory of Animal Virology of Ministry of Agriculture, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Xujiaping 1, Lanzhou, Gansu Province 730046, P. R. China
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19
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Hetrick KJ, Aguilar Ramos MA, Raines RT. Terbium(III) Luminescence-Based Assay for Esterase Activity. Anal Chem 2019; 91:8615-8621. [PMID: 31247727 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b01954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Esterases catalyze the hydrolysis of esters to form a carboxylic acid and alcohol. These enzymes play a key role in both the detoxification of xenobiotic compounds and the metabolism of drugs and prodrugs. Numerous fluorogenic probes have been developed to monitor esterase activity. Most are based on an aromatic alcohol, and the others are based on an aromatic acid. These restrictions leave unexplored the specificity of esterases for aliphatic esters. Here, we report on the use of esters of thiopheneacetic acid coupled with the luminescence of terbium(III) as the basis for a continuous assay of esterase activity. This probe allows for a wide variation of the alcohol moiety and the detection of its hydrolysis at submicromolar concentrations. The assay verifies steady-state kinetic parameters for catalysis by pig liver esterase from either initial rates or the integration of progress curves, and its utility is evident with unpurified esterases in bacterial and human cell lysates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenton J Hetrick
- Department of Chemistry , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States.,Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142 , United States
| | - Miguel A Aguilar Ramos
- Department of Chemistry , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States
| | - Ronald T Raines
- Department of Chemistry , Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02139 , United States.,Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard , Cambridge , Massachusetts 02142 , United States
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20
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Holmes N, Kavunja HW, Yang Y, Vannest BD, Ramsey CN, Gepford DM, Banahene N, Poston AW, Piligian BF, Ronning DR, Ojha AK, Swarts BM. A FRET-Based Fluorogenic Trehalose Dimycolate Analogue for Probing Mycomembrane-Remodeling Enzymes of Mycobacteria. ACS OMEGA 2019; 4:4348-4359. [PMID: 30842987 PMCID: PMC6396954 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/12/2019] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
The mycobacterial outer membrane, or mycomembrane, is essential for the viability and virulence of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and related pathogens. The mycomembrane is a dynamic structure, whose chemical composition and biophysical properties can change during stress to give an advantage to the bacterium. However, the mechanisms that govern mycomembrane remodeling and their significance to mycobacterial pathogenesis are still not well characterized. Recent studies have shown that trehalose dimycolate (TDM), a major glycolipid of the mycomembrane, is broken down by the mycobacteria-specific enzyme TDM hydrolase (Tdmh) in response to nutrient deprivation, a process which appears to modulate the mycomembrane to increase nutrient acquisition, but at the expense of stress tolerance. Tdmh activity thus balances the growth of M. tuberculosis during infection in a manner that is contingent upon host immunity. Current methods to probe Tdmh activity are limited, impeding the development of inhibitors and the investigation of the role of Tdmh in bacterial growth and persistence. Here, we describe the synthesis and evaluation of FRET-TDM, which is a fluorescence-quenched analogue of TDM that is designed to fluoresce upon hydrolysis by Tdmh and potentially other trehalose ester-degrading hydrolases involved in mycomembrane remodeling. We found that FRET-TDM was efficiently activated in vitro by recombinant Tdmh, generating a 100-fold increase in fluorescence. FRET-TDM was also efficiently activated in the presence of whole cells of Mycobacterium smegmatis and M. tuberculosis, but the observed signal was predominantly Tdmh-independent, suggesting that physiological levels of Tdmh are low and that other mycobacterial enzymes also hydrolyze the probe. The latter notion was confirmed by employing a native protein gel-based fluorescence assay to profile FRET-TDM-activating enzymes from M. smegmatis lysates. On the other hand, FRET-TDM was capable of detecting the activity of Tdmh in cells when it was overexpressed. Together, our data demonstrate that FRET-TDM is a convenient and sensitive in vitro probe of Tdmh activity, which will be beneficial for Tdmh enzymatic characterization and inhibitor screening. In more complex samples, for example, live cells or cell lysates, FRET-TDM can serve as a tool to probe Tdmh activity at elevated enzyme levels, and it may facilitate the identification and characterization of related hydrolases that are involved in mycomembrane remodeling. Our study also provides insights as to how the structure of FRET-TDM or related fluorogenic probes can be optimized to achieve improved specificity and sensitivity for detecting mycobacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan
J. Holmes
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Central Michigan
University, Mount
Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Herbert W. Kavunja
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Central Michigan
University, Mount
Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Yong Yang
- Division
of Genetics, Wadsworth Center, New York
State Department of Health, Albany, New York 12208, United States
| | - B. Dillon Vannest
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Central Michigan
University, Mount
Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Claudia N. Ramsey
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Central Michigan
University, Mount
Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Dana M. Gepford
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Central Michigan
University, Mount
Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Nicholas Banahene
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Central Michigan
University, Mount
Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Anne W. Poston
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Central Michigan
University, Mount
Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Brent F. Piligian
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Central Michigan
University, Mount
Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
| | - Donald R. Ronning
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Toledo, Toledo, Ohio 43606-3390, United States
| | - Anil K. Ojha
- Division
of Genetics, Wadsworth Center, New York
State Department of Health, Albany, New York 12208, United States
- Department
of Biomedical Sciences, University at Albany, New York 12208, United States
| | - Benjamin M. Swarts
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Central Michigan
University, Mount
Pleasant, Michigan 48859, United States
- E-mail:
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21
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Ji Y, Wang Y, Zhang N, Xu S, Zhang L, Wang Q, Zhang Q, Hu HY. Cell-Permeable Fluorogenic Probes for Identification and Imaging Nitroreductases in Live Bacterial Cells. J Org Chem 2018; 84:1299-1309. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.8b02746] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yubin Ji
- School of Life and Environment Sciences, Harbin University of Commerce, Harbin 150076, China
| | - Yali Wang
- School of Life and Environment Sciences, Harbin University of Commerce, Harbin 150076, China
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Na Zhang
- School of Life and Environment Sciences, Harbin University of Commerce, Harbin 150076, China
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Shengnan Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Leilei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Qinghua Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Qingyang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
| | - Hai-Yu Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Bioactive Substances and Function of Natural Medicine, Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences & Peking Union Medical College, Beijing 100050, China
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22
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Larsen EM, Johnson RJ. Microbial esterases and ester prodrugs: An unlikely marriage for combating antibiotic resistance. Drug Dev Res 2018; 80:33-47. [PMID: 30302779 DOI: 10.1002/ddr.21468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/17/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The rise of antibiotic resistance necessitates the search for new platforms for drug development. Prodrugs are common tools for overcoming drawbacks typically associated with drug formulation and delivery, with ester prodrugs providing a classic strategy for masking polar alcohol and carboxylic acid functionalities and improving cell permeability. Ester prodrugs are normally designed to have simple ester groups, as they are expected to be cleaved and reactivated by a wide spectrum of cellular esterases. However, a number of pathogenic and commensal microbial esterases have been found to possess significant substrate specificity and can play an unexpected role in drug metabolism. Ester protection can also introduce antimicrobial properties into previously nontoxic drugs through alterations in cell permeability or solubility. Finally, mutation to microbial esterases is a novel mechanism for the development of antibiotic resistance. In this review, we highlight the important pathogenic and xenobiotic functions of microbial esterases and discuss the development and application of ester prodrugs for targeting microbial infections and combating antibiotic resistance. Esterases are often overlooked as therapeutic targets. Yet, with the growing need to develop new antibiotics, a thorough understanding of the specificity and function of microbial esterases and their combined action with ester prodrug antibiotics will support the design of future therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erik M Larsen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, Indianapolis, Indiana.,Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Bloomsburg University, Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania
| | - R Jeremy Johnson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, Indianapolis, Indiana
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23
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Hou J, Qian M, Zhao H, Li Y, Liao Y, Han G, Xu Z, Wang F, Song Y, Liu Y. A near-infrared ratiometric/turn-on fluorescent probe for in vivo imaging of hydrogen peroxide in a murine model of acute inflammation. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1024:169-176. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2018.03.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2018] [Revised: 03/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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24
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Chyan W, Raines RT. Enzyme-Activated Fluorogenic Probes for Live-Cell and in Vivo Imaging. ACS Chem Biol 2018; 13:1810-1823. [PMID: 29924581 DOI: 10.1021/acschembio.8b00371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Fluorogenic probes, small-molecule sensors that unmask brilliant fluorescence upon exposure to specific stimuli, are powerful tools for chemical biology. Those probes that respond to enzymatic catalysis illuminate the complex dynamics of biological processes at a level of spatiotemporal detail and sensitivity unmatched by other techniques. Here, we review recent advances in enzyme-activated fluorogenic probes for biological imaging. We organize our survey by enzyme classification, with emphasis on fluorophore masking strategies, modes of enzymatic activation, and the breadth of current and future applications. Key challenges such as probe selectivity and spectroscopic requirements are described alongside therapeutic, diagnostic, and theranostic opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Chyan
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Ronald T. Raines
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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25
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Bassett B, Waibel B, White A, Hansen H, Stephens D, Koelper A, Larsen EM, Kim C, Glanzer A, Lavis LD, Hoops GC, Johnson RJ. Measuring the Global Substrate Specificity of Mycobacterial Serine Hydrolases Using a Library of Fluorogenic Ester Substrates. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:904-911. [PMID: 29648787 PMCID: PMC5993602 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.7b00263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Among the proteins required for lipid metabolism in Mycobacterium tuberculosis are a significant number of uncharacterized serine hydrolases, especially lipases and esterases. Using a streamlined synthetic method, a library of immolative fluorogenic ester substrates was expanded to better represent the natural lipidomic diversity of Mycobacterium. This expanded fluorogenic library was then used to rapidly characterize the global structure activity relationship (SAR) of mycobacterial serine hydrolases in M. smegmatis under different growth conditions. Confirmation of fluorogenic substrate activation by mycobacterial serine hydrolases was performed using nonspecific serine hydrolase inhibitors and reinforced the biological significance of the SAR. The hydrolases responsible for the global SAR were then assigned using gel-resolved activity measurements, and these assignments were used to rapidly identify the relative substrate specificity of previously uncharacterized mycobacterial hydrolases. These measurements provide a global SAR of mycobacterial hydrolase activity, a picture of cycling hydrolase activity, and a detailed substrate specificity profile for previously uncharacterized hydrolases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Braden Bassett
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
| | - Brent Waibel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
| | - Alex White
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
| | - Heather Hansen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
| | - Dominique Stephens
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
| | - Andrew Koelper
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
| | - Erik M. Larsen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
| | - Charles Kim
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Dr., Ashburn, VA 20147-2439 (USA)
| | - Adam Glanzer
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
| | - Luke D. Lavis
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Janelia Research Campus, 19700 Helix Dr., Ashburn, VA 20147-2439 (USA)
| | - Geoffrey C. Hoops
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
| | - R. Jeremy Johnson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Butler University, 4600 Sunset Ave., Indianapolis, IN 46208-3443 (USA)
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26
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Kolbe K, Veleti SK, Johnson EE, Cho YW, Oh S, Barry CE. Role of Chemical Biology in Tuberculosis Drug Discovery and Diagnosis. ACS Infect Dis 2018; 4:458-466. [PMID: 29364647 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.7b00242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
The use of chemical techniques to study biological systems (often referred to currently as chemical biology) has become a powerful tool for both drug discovery and the development of novel diagnostic strategies. In tuberculosis, such tools have been applied to identifying drug targets from hit compounds, matching high-throughput screening hits against large numbers of isolated protein targets and identifying classes of enzymes with important functions. Metabolites unique to mycobacteria have provided important starting points for the development of innovative tools. For example, the unique biology of trehalose has provided both novel diagnostic strategies as well as probes of in vivo biological processes that are difficult to study any other way. Other mycobacterial metabolites are potentially valuable starting points and have the potential to illuminate new aspects of mycobacterial pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Kolbe
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Sri Kumar Veleti
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Emma E. Johnson
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Young-Woo Cho
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Sangmi Oh
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Clifton E. Barry
- Tuberculosis Research Section, Laboratory of Clinical Immunology and Microbiology, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Disease, NIH, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
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27
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Characterization of an extracellular protein, Rv1076 from M. tuberculosis with a potential role in humoral response. Int J Biol Macromol 2017; 101:621-629. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2017.03.096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2016] [Revised: 03/09/2017] [Accepted: 03/13/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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28
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Awasthi D, Freundlich JS. Antimycobacterial Metabolism: Illuminating Mycobacterium tuberculosis Biology and Drug Discovery. Trends Microbiol 2017. [PMID: 28622844 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2017.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Bacteria are capable of performing a number of biotransformations that may activate or deactivate xenobiotics. Recent efforts have utilized metabolomics techniques to study the fate of small-molecule antibacterials within the targeted organism. Examples involving Mycobacterium tuberculosis are reviewed and analyzed with regard to the insights they provide as to both activation and deactivation of the antibacterial. The studies, in particular, shed light on biosynthetic transformations performed by M. tuberculosis while suggesting avenues for the evolution of chemical tools, highlighting potential areas for drug discovery, and mechanisms of approved drugs. A two-pronged approach investigating the metabolism of antibacterials within both the host and bacterium is outlined and will be of value to both the chemical biology and drug discovery fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divya Awasthi
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University - New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Joel S Freundlich
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, Rutgers University - New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA; Division of Infectious Disease, Department of Medicine, and the Ruy V. Lourenco Center for the Study of Emerging and Reemerging Pathogens, Rutgers University - New Jersey Medical School, Newark, NJ, USA.
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29
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Chyan W, Kilgore HR, Gold B, Raines RT. Electronic and Steric Optimization of Fluorogenic Probes for Biomolecular Imaging. J Org Chem 2017; 82:4297-4304. [PMID: 28345343 PMCID: PMC5519408 DOI: 10.1021/acs.joc.7b00285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Fluorogenic probes are invaluable tools for spatiotemporal investigations within live cells. In common fluorogenic probes, the intrinsic fluorescence of a small-molecule fluorophore is masked by esterification until entry into a cell, where endogenous esterases catalyze the hydrolysis of the masking groups, generating fluorescence. The susceptibility of masking groups to spontaneous hydrolysis is a major limitation of these probes. Previous attempts to address this problem have incorporated auto-immolative linkers at the cost of atom economy and synthetic adversity. Here, we report on a linker-free strategy that employs adventitious electronic and steric interactions in easy-to-synthesize probes. We find that X···C═O n→π* interactions and acyl group size are optimized in 2',7'-dichlorofluorescein diisobutyrate. This probe is relatively stable to spontaneous hydrolysis but is a highly reactive substrate for esterases both in vitro and in cellulo, yielding a bright, photostable fluorophore with utility in biomolecular imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Chyan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Henry R. Kilgore
- Graduate Program in Biophysics, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Brian Gold
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
| | - Ronald T. Raines
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, United States
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30
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Tallman KR, Levine SR, Beatty KE. Small-Molecule Probes Reveal Esterases with Persistent Activity in Dormant and Reactivating Mycobacterium tuberculosis. ACS Infect Dis 2016; 2:936-944. [PMID: 27690385 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.6b00135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is the deadliest bacterial pathogen in the world. An estimated one-third of humans harbor Mtb in a dormant state. These asymptomatic, latent infections impede tuberculosis eradication due to the long-term potential for reactivation. Dormant Mtb has reduced enzymatic activity, but hydrolases that remain active facilitate pathogen survival. We targeted Mtb esterases, a diverse set of enzymes in the serine hydrolase family, and studied their activities using both activity-based probes (ABPs) and fluorogenic esterase substrates. These small-molecule probes revealed functional esterases in active, dormant, and reactivating cultures. Using ABPs, we identified five esterases that remained active in dormant Mtb, including LipM (Rv2284), LipN (Rv2970c), CaeA (Rv2224c), Rv0183, and Rv1683. Three of these, CaeA, Rv0183, and Rv1683, were catalytically active in all three culture conditions. Fluorogenic probes additionally revealed LipH (Rv1399c), Culp1 (Rv1984c), and Rv3036c esterase activity in dormant and active cultures. Esterases with persistent activity are potential diagnostic biomarkers or therapeutic targets for Mtb-infected individuals with latent or active tuberculosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie R. Tallman
- Program in Chemical Biology and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, Mail Code CL3B, 2730 S.W. Moody Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97201, United States
| | - Samantha R. Levine
- Program in Chemical Biology and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, Mail Code CL3B, 2730 S.W. Moody Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97201, United States
| | - Kimberly E. Beatty
- Program in Chemical Biology and Department of Biomedical Engineering, Oregon Health & Science University, Mail Code CL3B, 2730 S.W. Moody Avenue, Portland, Oregon 97201, United States
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31
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Choi YR, Lee B, Park J, Namkung W, Jeong KS. Enzyme-Responsive Procarriers Capable of Transporting Chloride Ions across Lipid and Cellular Membranes. J Am Chem Soc 2016; 138:15319-15322. [DOI: 10.1021/jacs.6b10592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ye Rin Choi
- Department
of Chemistry, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-749, Korea
| | - Bom Lee
- Department
of Chemistry, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-749, Korea
| | - Jinhong Park
- College
of Pharmacy, Yonsei International Campus, Incheon 406-840, Korea
| | - Wan Namkung
- College
of Pharmacy, Yonsei International Campus, Incheon 406-840, Korea
| | - Kyu-Sung Jeong
- Department
of Chemistry, Yonsei University, Seoul 120-749, Korea
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32
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Winton VJ, Aldrich C, Kiessling LL. Carboxylate Surrogates Enhance the Antimycobacterial Activity of UDP-Galactopyranose Mutase Probes. ACS Infect Dis 2016; 2:538-43. [PMID: 27626294 DOI: 10.1021/acsinfecdis.6b00021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Uridine diphosphate galactopyranose mutase (UGM also known as Glf) is a biosynthetic enzyme required for construction of the galactan, an essential mycobacterial cell envelope polysaccharide. Our group previously identified two distinct classes of UGM inhibitors; each possesses a carboxylate moiety that is crucial for potency yet likely detrimental for cell permeability. To enhance the antimycobacterial potency, we sought to replace the carboxylate with a functional group mimic-an N-acylsulfonamide group. We therefore synthesized a series of N-acylsulfonamide analogs and tested their ability to inhibit UGM. For each inhibitor scaffold tested, the N-acylsulfonamide group functions as an effective carboxylate surrogate. Although the carboxylates and their surrogates show similar activity against UGM in a test tube, several N-acylsulfonamide derivatives more effectively block the growth of Mycobacterium smegmatis. These data suggest that the replacement of a carboxylate with an N-acylsulfonamide group could serve as a general strategy to augment antimycobacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie J. Winton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1322, United States
| | - Claudia Aldrich
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1322, United States
| | - Laura L. Kiessling
- Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 1101 University Avenue, Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1322, United States
- Department
of Biochemistry, University of Wisconsin—Madison, 433 Babcock Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1544, United States
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