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Zhang C, Zhou Z, Guo T, Huang X, Peng C, Lin Z, Chen M, Liu W. CFHTF2 Is Needed for Vegetative Growth, Conidial Morphogenesis and the Osmotic Stress Response in the Tea Plant Anthracnose ( Colletotrichum fructicola). Genes (Basel) 2023; 14:2235. [PMID: 38137057 PMCID: PMC10743015 DOI: 10.3390/genes14122235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 11/22/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Tea is an important cash crop worldwide, and its nutritional value has led to its high economic benefits. Tea anthracnose is a common disease of tea plants that seriously affects food safety and yield and has a far-reaching impact on the sustainable development of the tea industry. In this study, phenotypic analysis and pathogenicity analysis were performed on knockout and complement strains of HTF2-the transcriptional regulator of tea anthracnose homeobox-and the pathogenic mechanism of these strains was explored via RNA-seq. The MoHox1 gene sequence of the rice blast fungus was indexed, and the anthracnose genome was searched for CfHTF2. Evolutionary analysis recently reported the affinity of HTF2 for C. fructicola and C. higginsianum. The loss of CfHTF2 slowed the vegetative growth and spore-producing capacity of C. fructicola and weakened its resistance and pathogenesis to adverse conditions. The transcriptome sequencing of wild-type N425 and CfHTF2 deletion mutants was performed, and a total of 3144 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were obtained, 1594 of which were upregulated and 1550 of which were downregulated. GO and KEGG enrichment analyses of DEGs mainly focused on signaling pathways such as the biosynthesis of secondary metabolites. In conclusion, this study lays a foundation for further study of the pathogenic mechanism of tea anthracnose and provides a molecular basis for the analysis of the pathogenic molecular mechanism of CfHTF2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chengkang Zhang
- Industry and University Research Cooperation Demonstration Base of Science and Technology Agency in Fujian Province, College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China; (C.Z.); (Z.Z.); (T.G.); (X.H.); (C.P.); (Z.L.); (M.C.)
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide and Chemistry Biology, Fujian Agricultural and Forestry University, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Ziwen Zhou
- Industry and University Research Cooperation Demonstration Base of Science and Technology Agency in Fujian Province, College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China; (C.Z.); (Z.Z.); (T.G.); (X.H.); (C.P.); (Z.L.); (M.C.)
- College of Food Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Tianlong Guo
- Industry and University Research Cooperation Demonstration Base of Science and Technology Agency in Fujian Province, College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China; (C.Z.); (Z.Z.); (T.G.); (X.H.); (C.P.); (Z.L.); (M.C.)
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide and Chemistry Biology, Fujian Agricultural and Forestry University, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou 350002, China
- College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Xin Huang
- Industry and University Research Cooperation Demonstration Base of Science and Technology Agency in Fujian Province, College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China; (C.Z.); (Z.Z.); (T.G.); (X.H.); (C.P.); (Z.L.); (M.C.)
- Key Laboratory of Bio-Pesticide and Chemistry Biology, Fujian Agricultural and Forestry University, Ministry of Education, Fuzhou 350002, China
- College of Life Science, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou 350002, China
| | - Chengbin Peng
- Industry and University Research Cooperation Demonstration Base of Science and Technology Agency in Fujian Province, College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China; (C.Z.); (Z.Z.); (T.G.); (X.H.); (C.P.); (Z.L.); (M.C.)
| | - Zhideng Lin
- Industry and University Research Cooperation Demonstration Base of Science and Technology Agency in Fujian Province, College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China; (C.Z.); (Z.Z.); (T.G.); (X.H.); (C.P.); (Z.L.); (M.C.)
| | - Meixia Chen
- Industry and University Research Cooperation Demonstration Base of Science and Technology Agency in Fujian Province, College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China; (C.Z.); (Z.Z.); (T.G.); (X.H.); (C.P.); (Z.L.); (M.C.)
| | - Wei Liu
- Industry and University Research Cooperation Demonstration Base of Science and Technology Agency in Fujian Province, College of Life Science, Ningde Normal University, Ningde 352100, China; (C.Z.); (Z.Z.); (T.G.); (X.H.); (C.P.); (Z.L.); (M.C.)
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2
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Truex N, Rondon A, Rössler SL, Hanna CC, Cho Y, Wang BY, Backlund CM, Lutz EA, Irvine DJ, Pentelute BL. Enhanced Vaccine Immunogenicity Enabled by Targeted Cytosolic Delivery of Tumor Antigens into Dendritic Cells. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2023; 9:1835-1845. [PMID: 37780364 PMCID: PMC10540291 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.3c00625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
Molecular vaccines comprising antigen peptides and inflammatory cues make up a class of therapeutics that promote immunity against cancer and pathogenic diseases but often exhibit limited efficacy. Here, we engineered an antigen peptide delivery system to enhance vaccine efficacy by targeting dendritic cells and mediating cytosolic delivery. The delivery system consists of the nontoxic anthrax protein, protective antigen (PA), and a single-chain variable fragment (scFv) that recognizes the XCR1 receptor on dendritic cells (DCs). Combining these proteins enabled selective delivery of the N-terminus of lethal factor (LFN) into XCR1-positive cross-presenting DCs. Incorporating immunogenic epitope sequences into LFN showed selective protein translocation in vitro and enhanced the priming of antigen-specific T cells in vivo. Administering DC-targeted constructs with tumor antigens (Trp1/gp100) into mice bearing aggressive B16-F10 melanomas improved mouse outcomes when compared to free antigen, including suppressed tumor growth up to 58% at 16 days post tumor induction (P < 0.0001) and increased survival (P = 0.03). These studies demonstrate that harnessing DC-targeting anthrax proteins for cytosolic antigen delivery significantly enhances the immunogenicity and antitumor efficacy of cancer vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas
L. Truex
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of South Carolina, 631
Sumter Street, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Aurélie Rondon
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Simon L. Rössler
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Cameron C. Hanna
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Yehlin Cho
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Bin-You Wang
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Coralie M. Backlund
- The
Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Emi A. Lutz
- The
Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Darrell J. Irvine
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- The
Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Ragon Institute
of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and Harvard University, 400 Technology Square, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Howard
Hughes Medical Institute, 4000 Jones Bridge Road, Chevy Chase, Maryland 20815, United States
| | - Bradley L. Pentelute
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- The
Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Center
for Environmental Health Sciences, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Broad
Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
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3
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Panchal SS, Vasava DV. Synthetic biodegradable polymeric materials in non-viral gene delivery. INT J POLYM MATER PO 2023. [DOI: 10.1080/00914037.2023.2167081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Siddhi S. Panchal
- Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, India
| | - Dilip V. Vasava
- Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, India
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4
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Haywood EE, Handy NB, Lopez JW, Ho M, Wilson BA. Insertion-trigger residues differentially modulate endosomal escape by cytotoxic necrotizing factor toxins. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:101347. [PMID: 34715130 PMCID: PMC8592880 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
The cellular specificity, potency, and modular nature of bacterial protein toxins enable their application for targeted cytosolic delivery of therapeutic cargo. Efficient endosomal escape is a critical step in the design of bacterial toxin-inspired drug delivery (BTIDD) vehicles to avoid lysosomal degradation and promote optimal cargo delivery. The cytotoxic necrotizing factor (CNF) family of modular toxins represents a useful model for investigating cargo-delivery mechanisms due to the availability of many homologs with high sequence identity, their flexibility in swapping domains, and their differential activity profiles. Previously, we found that CNFy is more sensitive to endosomal acidification inhibitors than CNF1 and CNF2. Here, we report that CNF3 is even less sensitive than CNF1/2. We identified two amino acid residues within the putative translocation domain (E374 and E412 in CNFy, Q373 and S411 in CNF3) that differentiate between these two toxins. Swapping these corresponding residues in each toxin changed the sensitivity to endosomal acidification and efficiency of cargo-delivery to be more similar to the other toxin. Results suggested that trafficking to the more acidic late endosome is required for cargo delivery by CNFy but not CNF3. This model was supported by results from toxin treatment of cells in the presence of NH4Cl, which blocks endosomal acidification, and of small-molecule inhibitors EGA, which blocks trafficking to late endosomes, and ABMA, which blocks endosomal escape and trafficking to the lysosomal degradative pathway. These findings suggest that it is possible to fine-tune endosomal escape and cytosolic cargo delivery efficiency in designing BTIDD platforms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth E Haywood
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Nicholas B Handy
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - James W Lopez
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Mengfei Ho
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA
| | - Brenda A Wilson
- Department of Microbiology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois, USA.
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5
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Zhu H, Zhou Y, Wang Q, Yang X, Ding C, Xiong Y. Long non-coding RNA LALTOP promotes non-small cell lung cancer progression by stabilizing topoisomerase IIα mRNA. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2021; 574:56-62. [PMID: 34438347 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2021.08.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Accepted: 08/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been shown to actively participate in various biological processes including cancer progression. However, most lncRNAs still have undefined functions. In current work, we identified a novel lncRNA named LALTOP which displayed an oncogenic function in non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). LALTOP expression is increased in NSCLC tissues and cell lines. Moreover, LALTOP strongly promoted proliferation and migration of A549 and H1793 cells. RNA-RNA interaction assay showed that LALTOP bound and stabilized topoisomerase II alpha (Top2α) mRNA. Positive correlation can be found between LALTOP and Top2α mRNA expressions in clinical specimens. ASOs targeting LALTOP could markedly inhibit malignant phenotypes of NSCLC. Collectively, LALTOP may serve as an oncogenic lncRNA and enhances NSCLC progression. Targeting LALTOP has therapeutic potential for eradicating lung cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huaiyang Zhu
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shandong Public Health Clinical Center, 250100, Jinan, China
| | - Ying Zhou
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shandong Public Health Clinical Center, 250100, Jinan, China
| | - Qing Wang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shandong Public Health Clinical Center, 250100, Jinan, China
| | - Xiaobo Yang
- Department of Thoracic Surgery, Shandong Public Health Clinical Center, 250100, Jinan, China
| | - Caihong Ding
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Shandong Public Health Clinical Center, 250100, Jinan, China
| | - Yu Xiong
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, Shandong Public Health Clinical Center, 250100, Jinan, China.
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6
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Panchal SS, Vasava DV. Fabricating approaches for synthesis of miktoarm star-shaped polymers having tailored biodegradability. INT J POLYM MATER PO 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/00914037.2021.1981319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Siddhi S. Panchal
- Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, India
| | - Dilip V. Vasava
- Department of Chemistry, School of Sciences, Gujarat University, Ahmedabad, India
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7
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Liu W, Nestorovich EM. Anthrax toxin channel: What we know based on over 30 years of research. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2021; 1863:183715. [PMID: 34332985 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2021.183715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2021] [Revised: 07/21/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Protective antigen channel is the central component of the deadly anthrax exotoxin responsible for binding and delivery of the toxin's enzymatic lethal and edema factor components into the cytosol. The channel, which is more than three times longer than the lipid bilayer membrane thickness and has a 6-Å limiting diameter, is believed to provide a sophisticated unfoldase and translocase machinery for the foreign protein transport into the host cell cytosol. The tripartite toxin can be reengineered, one component at a time or collectively, to adapt it for the targeted cancer therapeutic treatments. In this review, we focus on the biophysical studies of the protective antigen channel-forming activity, small ion transport properties, enzymatic factor translocation, and blockage comparing it with the related clostridial binary toxin channels. We address issues linked to the anthrax toxin channel structural dynamics and lipid dependence, which are yet to become generally recognized as parts of the toxin translocation machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenxing Liu
- Department of Biology, The Catholic University of America, 620 Michigan Ave, Washington, DC 20064, USA
| | - Ekaterina M Nestorovich
- Department of Biology, The Catholic University of America, 620 Michigan Ave, Washington, DC 20064, USA.
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8
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Brodyagin N, Katkevics M, Kotikam V, Ryan CA, Rozners E. Chemical approaches to discover the full potential of peptide nucleic acids in biomedical applications. Beilstein J Org Chem 2021; 17:1641-1688. [PMID: 34367346 PMCID: PMC8313981 DOI: 10.3762/bjoc.17.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Peptide nucleic acid (PNA) is arguably one of the most successful DNA mimics, despite a most dramatic departure from the native structure of DNA. The present review summarizes 30 years of research on PNA's chemistry, optimization of structure and function, applications as probes and diagnostics, and attempts to develop new PNA therapeutics. The discussion starts with a brief review of PNA's binding modes and structural features, followed by the most impactful chemical modifications, PNA enabled assays and diagnostics, and discussion of the current state of development of PNA therapeutics. While many modifications have improved on PNA's binding affinity and specificity, solubility and other biophysical properties, the original PNA is still most frequently used in diagnostic and other in vitro applications. Development of therapeutics and other in vivo applications of PNA has notably lagged behind and is still limited by insufficient bioavailability and difficulties with tissue specific delivery. Relatively high doses are required to overcome poor cellular uptake and endosomal entrapment, which increases the risk of toxicity. These limitations remain unsolved problems waiting for innovative chemistry and biology to unlock the full potential of PNA in biomedical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikita Brodyagin
- Department of Chemistry, Binghamton University, The State University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Martins Katkevics
- Latvian Institute of Organic Synthesis, Aizkraukles 21, Riga, LV-1006, Latvia
| | - Venubabu Kotikam
- Department of Chemistry, Binghamton University, The State University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Christopher A Ryan
- Department of Chemistry, Binghamton University, The State University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Eriks Rozners
- Department of Chemistry, Binghamton University, The State University of New York, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
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9
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Perera JDR, Carufe KEW, Glazer PM. Peptide nucleic acids and their role in gene regulation and editing. Biopolymers 2021; 112:e23460. [PMID: 34129732 DOI: 10.1002/bip.23460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The unique properties of peptide nucleic acid (PNA) makes it a desirable candidate to be used in therapeutic and biotechnological interventions. It has been broadly utilized for numerous applications, with a major focus in regulation of gene expression, and more recently in gene editing. While the classic PNA design has mainly been employed to date, chemical modifications of the PNA backbone and nucleobases provide an avenue to advance the technology further. This review aims to discuss the recent developments in PNA based gene manipulation techniques and the use of novel chemical modifications to improve the current state of PNA mediated gene targeting.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Dinithi R Perera
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Kelly E W Carufe
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Peter M Glazer
- Department of Therapeutic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.,Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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10
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Lu Z, Truex NL, Melo MB, Cheng Y, Li N, Irvine DJ, Pentelute BL. IgG-Engineered Protective Antigen for Cytosolic Delivery of Proteins into Cancer Cells. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2021; 7:365-378. [PMID: 33655074 PMCID: PMC7908032 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.0c01670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Therapeutic immunotoxins composed of antibodies and bacterial toxins provide potent activity against malignant cells, but joining them with a defined covalent bond while maintaining the desired function is challenging. Here, we develop novel immunotoxins by dovetailing full-length immunoglobulin G (IgG) antibodies and nontoxic anthrax proteins, in which the C terminus of the IgG heavy chain is connected to the side chain of anthrax toxin protective antigen. This strategy enabled efficient conjugation of protective antigen variants to trastuzumab (Tmab) and cetuximab (Cmab) antibodies. The conjugates effectively perform intracellular delivery of edema factor and N terminus of lethal factor (LFN) fused with diphtheria toxin and Ras/Rap1-specific endopeptidase. Each conjugate shows high specificity for cells expressing human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) and epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), respectively, and potent activity across six Tmab- and Cmab-resistant cell lines. The conjugates also exhibit increased pharmacokinetics and pronounced in vivo safety, which shows promise for further therapeutic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeyu Lu
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Nicholas L. Truex
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Mariane B. Melo
- The
Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Ragon
Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Yiran Cheng
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
| | - Na Li
- The
Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
| | - Darrell J. Irvine
- The
Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Ragon
Institute of Massachusetts General Hospital, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department
of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Department
of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Howard Hughes
Medical Institute, 4000
Jones Bridge Road, Chevy Chase, Maryland 20815, United
States
| | - Bradley L. Pentelute
- Department
of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- The
Koch Institute for Integrative Cancer Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 500 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- Center
for Environmental Health Sciences, Massachusetts
Institute of Technology, 77 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
- Broad
Institute of MIT and Harvard, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02142, United States
- E-mail:
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